Classical Theory Of Turgot Essay Research Paper free essay sample

Old style Theory Of Turgot Essay, Research Paper Nancee Human science 3000 M-W-F 12:20-1:18 Last Outline Old style Theory of Turgot I. Presentation A. Puting the scene-Turgot as Minister of Finance in France B. Who was Turgot? What was his true to life foundation? What twelvemonth would he say he was conceived? II. Body A. Turgot? s foundation 1. Society as a voyaging being 2. Turgot as an old style dynamic 3. Turgot surrendered his bringing in the congregation for common assistance B. Turgot? s Education 1. School Louis-le-Grand 2. School du Plessis 3. Theological school of Saint Sulpice C. Turgot? s most commended creation 1. Reflections sur la development et la dispersion diethylstilbestrols riches D. Turgot? s impacts 1. Comte purchases in to Turgot? s hypothesis of society as a voyaging life form associated in parts 2. Condorcet and Smith are affected by Turgot E. Turgot? s change musings 1. Turgot was a brain and a theoretician 2. Turgot loses his ubiquity 3. Turgot proposes income upgrade of landholders 4. Turgot? s fund upheaval comes up short F. Early Europe and Turgot 1. Imbalance and corruptness were in specialists and society 2. Social and monetary disparities 3. Promoters become vocal during the rule of Louis XVI III. Choice A. Turgot Retires 1. Obstruction incorporates every single advantaged bunch each piece great as the sovereign 2. Turgot declines an annuity and resigns to an existence of logical, verifiable, and artistic overview # 8220 ; Each individual is the solitary able equity of the most profitable utilization of his territories and of his work. # 8221 ; - Turgot It was 1774, and decennaries of costly and unadvised specialists adventures left the legislature of Louis the XVI in financial issues broadened and shaking, once again, on the outskirt of insolvency. Subsequently was the situation when Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, the noble de l # 8217 ; Aulne, was selected France # 8217 ; s Minister of Finance. A.R.J. Turgot was conceived in Paris on May 10, 1727, to a recognized Norman family unit which had filled in as of import imperial functionaries. The Turgot family unit had for some time been praised, however their initial history is somewhat ambiguous. One story is they were of Norse start and another history is that the family unit was initially from Scotland. Either way he originated from an agreeable, upper classification, white family. He passed on at 54 years old mature ages old, of urarthritis, the family unit malady ( Columbia Encyclopedia 1993 ) . TURGOT # 8217 ; S BACKGROUND Turgot composed a figure of plants. He started with? The Barmecides, a catastrophe? what's more, closes with? On Luxury, political examinations? ; and in the middle of these are 48 others, remembering plants for cosmopolitan history, the start of etymological correspondences, love and marriage, political geographics, normal holiness, profound quality, monetary sciences, and a lot more ( Meek 1973 ) . Very few of Turgot? s Hagiographas were distributed during his life-time. Most appeared in periodicals and letters. ? The entire human race, through interchange times of leftover portion and distress, of grain and enduring, continues advancing, in spite of the fact that at a moderate stride, towards more noteworthy flawlessness. ? - Turgot Turgot? s felt that society returns obviously and thusly was bound to be vital, non only for his ain plants however for the outgrowth and improvement of cultural logical order in the eighteenth century. It is conceivable that Turgot got a portion of these considerations from Montesquieu yet it is Turgot who refined them. Turgot saw society as a moderate moving being. Society moves and modifications in a transformative structure. It resembles a natural being. He other than felt society moves from a basic signifier to an increasingly mind boggling signifier. A delineation of this would be cultivating for supplement to at long last industrialisation of supplement. Each stage or part of society, Turgot felt, is associated with the accompanying stage or bit. In Turgot? s observed Philosophical Review of the Successive Advances of the Human Mind, Turgot embarks to demo how the ways of thinking of Christianity have assisted with tempering interests, to sharpen authoritiess, and to accomplish work powers better and more joyful. Turgot was a Classical Liberal. He accepted that independence is a grown-up male # 8217 ; s most noteworthy political terminal, and that profound religion, a free-showcase financial framework, and restricted specialists were irreplaceable. He accepted world was going towards incredible faultlessness. He was truly worried about the forward March of world ( Andreski 1971 ) . Turgot was abdominal muscle initio instructed for a bringing in the Church. Turgot relinquished his bringing in the congregation for the Civil Service. He was required to come in the ministry, however on the other hand felt he was called to specialists administration. He was delegated Administrator of Limoges and in this manner, Secretary of State for the Navy. For a short clasp, he was other than Controller of Finance to the King of France ( Meek 1973 ) . TURGOT? S EDUCATION Turgot was sent to class in Paris in the College Louis-le-Grand, and a rather decent account is recounted him at that place. His pocket-cash at any point appeared to disappear actually rapidly, and after test it worked out that he spent everything helping the less fortunate twenty-four hours young men purchase their books for classifications, which they themselves could non manage. He thusly went to the College du Plessis, lastly gave to the Seminary of Saint Sulpice for his progressively religious planning ( Lodge 1931 ) . Turgot earned honors preeminent at the Seminary of Saint-Sulpice, thus at the extraordinary philosophical module of the University of Paris, the Sorbonne. What's more, despite the fact that he had wide-extending judicious inclusions ever, heavenly nature, writing, humanism, and the characteristic logical orders, he is currently most popular for his short bringing in financial sciences ( Dakin 1965 ) . TURGOT # 8217 ; S MOST FAMOUS Writing Turgot composed on monetary points, prominently Reflexions Sur La arrangement et la conveyance diethylstilbestrols riches. He supported the facilitated commerce and free-rivalry rules of Vincent de Gournay. In Limoges, so perhaps the most unfortunate territory of France, he applied a portion of his hypotheses. He empowered new agrarian strategies, presented new reaps, created industry, advanced nearby facilitated commerce, nullified obligatory work for open work, fabricated streets, founded a bit of open guide, and expelled some income upgrade abuses ( Dakin 1965 ) . TURGOT? S INFLUENCES Turgot accepted society is an arrangement of parts and every one of these parts are associated with one another. Each stage or segment sets the conditions for the accompanying stage or bit of society. Comte got his considerations of society going in a transformative structure from Turgot. Condorcet was affected by Turgot? s work. He distributed Vie de M Turgot ( 1786 ) and Vie de Voltaire ( 1789 ) . In these lifes he demonstrated that he supported Turgot # 8217 ; s financial hypotheses. Condorcet portrayed Turgot? s position refering the unfathomable perfectibility of the human dread snd the illimitable headway of the logical trains as? one of the extraordinary principles of his convention, ? which he? neer one time surrendered? ( Meek 1973 ) . Furthermore, Turgot? s Reflections # 8230 ; is regularly portrayed as one of the vast majority of import general treatises on political monetary framework composed before Smith # 8217 ; s Wealth of Nations and there is little vulnerability tha t it was a significant impact on Adam Smith ( Lodge 1931 ) . TURGOT # 8217 ; S IDEAS Turgot was unique in relation to other financial master of his clasp. He was to a greater extent a psyche and theoretician. He was resolved to adjust the framework despite the fact that the enhanced one mig ht non be invited. He had a few contemplations I may non hold with, for example, world ever going towards perfection, how would we cognize when we are venturing to every part of the other way, and who is the equity of what faultlessness is? He was worried for the great beyond, non for the prompt these days. He was a creator each piece great as a chief and he drove a school of monetary personalities whose impacts were to reappear in the undermentioned century. His ideals were acknowledged more to the full in his expire than when he was alive. In spite of the fact that his changes didn # 8217 ; t add up to a lot and experienced a lot of neighborhood predisposition, he was acclaimed for them, unconventionally by the philosophes. In 1774 the Comte de Maurepas made him officer general of fundss in his bureau. Turgot # 8217 ; s program-# 8221 ; No chapter 11, no expansion in income improvements, no selection, yet monetary framework # 8221 ; - required tough changes. He annulled a few sinecures and imposing business models, attempted to better the arrangement of cultivating the income upgrades, radically cut specialists disbursals, and recovered bit of the open obligation. His decree ( 1774 ) reproducing free course of grain inside France irritated the grain theorists and was unfortunately trailed by a reap disappointment. Bread open violences came about and were stifled. This made Turgot lose a lot of his notoriety ( Lodge 1931 ) . Turgot excited the church by prefering acknowledgment of the Protestants and incited a tempest of dissent by his six orders of Jan. , 1776. The initial four orders were non critical. The fifth abrogated clubs, along these lines stoping constraints on work and business. The sixth, the vast majority of import, struck at the Lords by stifling the corv? nutrient E and proposing income improvement of all landowners In his Reflections Sur lupus erythematosus arrangement et distri buoon diethylstilbestrols riches ( 1726 ) , he built up an investigation of the statute of diminishing returns. Turgot # 8217 ; s free-advertise assault was unfalteringly established in his philosophical guidance and spilled out of his religion in God. He started changes expected to deregulate agribusiness and industry, support organized commerce and loosened limit lines, and set up more pleasant work designs. He

Identification of the Impact of Cultural Diversity

CURTIN UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF HUMANITIES (DEPARTMENT OF CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT) IDENTIFICATION OF THE IMPACT OF HOFSTEDE’S CROSS-CULTURAL DIMENSIONS ON THE DETERMINANTS OF PROJECT SUCCESS AMONG MANAGERS IN PRIVATE SECTOR ORGANIZATIONS IN MIRI, SARAWAK, MALAYSIA Uyi Rapheal Edomwandagbon 7e0b8198/14 Mitrabinda Singh Research proposition introduced as a piece of the prerequisites for the honor of the level of MASTER OF SCIENCE (Project Management) June 2012 Acknowledgment My most earnest thanks and appreciation goes to my chief, Mrs.Mitrabinda Singh for her consistence tolerance, significant exhortation and direction all through this last year venture in each viewpoint. What's more, I might want to offer my most prominent thanks to all the teachers in Curtin University who at once or the other have been there for me all through the term of this Master of Science in Project Management course. I might likewise want to express a Special gratitude to all my course mates and seniors for their commitments and backing in the composition of this research.Last yet not least, I might want to thank the entirety of my family both here and back home for giving me this chance, Ik and Mathilda for their tenacious exertion in supporting me and Manami for her consolations and love. Unique The examination centers around distinguishing the basic effect of Hofstede’s multifaceted measurements on venture accomplishment among private part associations in Miri, Sarawak, Malaysia. Social distinction is dominatingly existent in the vast majority of today’s private segment associations yet the impact has been incredibly overlooked.Following the point of the examination various inquiries has been drawn which the exploration expects to reply and an inside and out investigation of past written works and studies has been directed and utilized with the end goal of the basic research and various theories have been drawn for testing this examination. Initial, an ID of the va riables important for venture achievement was done, trailed by an investigation of social measurements created by Geert Hofstede (1984).The impact of every one of the measurements according to associations achievement factors was recognized and these were applied to build up a connection between's the social measurements and task achievement. The exploration study will be led inside chosen layers of 20 private division association in Miri with just the chiefs as members, utilizing a quantitative methodology utilizing a lot of survey containing inquiries with 5-point likert scale and a segment area of open and close-finished inquiries circulated among directors in Private segment associations situated in Miri, Sarawak.The coming about discoveries and resolution will help in building up this relationship and give generous proof on if culturally diverse contrasts in Private part associations add to the accomplishment of undertaking in Private segment associations situated around Miri, Malaysia. The relationship as assessed by Tukiainen et al. (2004) and (Matveev and Milter 2004) is that the heterogeneous gathering of directors originating from various countries have lower venture achievement and as indicated by Higgs(1996) the heterogeneous gathering get points of interest to get higher task accomplishment than the homogeneous group.The homogenous gathering here is the gathering of administrators who are Malaysians from Miri private area associations. To break down the gathering contrasts a free example T-test is directed. Different relapses have been led to test the theories. List of chapters Chapter 11 1. 1INTRODUCTION1 1. 2BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY2 1. 3PROBLEM STATEMENT3 1. 4RESEARCH OBJECTIVES5 1. 5OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS AND TERMS5 1. 6METHODOLOGY7 1. 7STRUCTURE OF THE REPORT8 Chapter 29 2. 1INTRODUCTION9 2. 2UNDERSTANDING PROJECT SUCCESS9 2. 2. 1Measuring undertaking success10 2. 3CULTURAL DIFFERENCES13 . 3. 1Understanding Culture and Cultural Dif ference13 2. 3. 2Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions theory14 2. 3. 3The Effect of Cultural Difference on Project Success16 2. 4HYPOTHESES DEVELOPMENT19 2. 5CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND HYPOTHESIS25 Chapter 326 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY26 3. 1INTRODUCTION26 3. 1. 1Application of study26 3. 1. 2Objectives of the research27 3. 1. 3Mode of enquiry27 3. 2FORMULATION OF RESEARCH PROBLEM28 3. 3CONCEPTUALIZATION OF A RESEARCH DESIGN28 3. 4CONSTRUCTING AN INSTRUMENT FOR DATA COLLECTION29 3. 5SELECTING A SAMPLE31 3. 6WRITING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL33 3. 7DATA COLLECTION34 . 8PROCESSING AND DISPLAYING THE DATA34 3. 9WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT35 3. 10RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPROVEMENT36 Chapter 437 ANALYSIS OF RESEARCH37 4. 1INTRODUCTION37 4. 2DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS37 4. 2. 1Company Profile (Dem1)38 4. 2. 2Number of representatives in associations (Dem2)39 4. 2. 3Employee Nationality (Dem3)39 4. 2. 4Number of Diverse workers in taking an interest Organizations (Dem11)40 4. 2. 5General Language of correspondenc e in Organizations (Dem12)41 4. 2. 6Employee view of Cultural assorted variety issues (Dem13)42 4. 3PROFILE OF RESPONDENTS44 4. 3. 1Age of the respondents (Dem5)45 4. 3. Sexual orientation (Dem4)45 4. 3. 3Education degree of members (Dem6)46 4. 3. 4Job Profile (Dem7-Dem10)47 4. 3. 5Years in current position (Dem10)48 4. 4SECTION 2: PROJECT SUCCESS FACTORS (Q1-33)49 4. 4. 1Perception of Time, Cost and Quality as proportions of Project Success50 4. 4. 2Percentage of Effective group performance51 4. 4. 3Percentage venture the board procedure quality53 4. 4. 4Percentage fulfills hierarchical objective and purpose55 4. 4. 5Percentage discernment on advantages to partners, Users and clients56 4. 4. 6Percentage proficient clash management57 4. 4. 7Percentage advantage to organisation59 4. Area C: PERCEPTION OF EMPLOYEES ON CULTURAL DIVERSITY DIMENSIONS (CulD 1-25)61 4. 5. 1I concur that force and authority is being dispersed similarly among representatives in my association. 61 4. 5. 2I co ncur that a specific degree of intensity must be practiced to guarantee that colleagues or representatives are devoted to their work in my association (CulD2)62 4. 5. 3I permit my representatives to address me or top administration when in conflict with task or business related issues in my organization. (CulD3)62 4. 5. 4I concur with the explanation that my representatives must hold fast to my associations administers regardless of whether it risks our hierarchical objectives. CulD4)63 4. 5. 5I concur with the explanation that representative management in my association is severe (CulD5)64 4. 5. 6I feel I possess adequate energy for my family and individual life outside my work environment CulD665 4. 5. 7I concur that my worker evaluation is merited for working admirably at my association. CulD765 4. 5. 8I concur that a worker with the most grounded state wins in issues of contentions or contentions in my association. CulD866 4. 5. 9I like to help other people as much as Possible. CulD967 4. 5. 10I consent to the explanation that working is the main methods for occupation. (CulD10)67 4. . 11I now and again get protests from my representatives about being worried by remaining task at hand. CulD1168 4. 5. 12I concur that my associations rules must be carefully obeyed by my workers consistently. CulD1269 4. 5. 13I concur that time is generally important to my representatives when dealing with undertakings. CulD1369 4. 5. 14I concur with the explanation that vulnerabilities and dangers are ordinary highlights of life. CulD1470 4. 5. 15I accept that basic assignments ought to be dealt with first before others. CulD1571 4. 5. 16I permit the commitment of my representatives in dynamic in my associations. CulD1671 4. 5. 7I concur that recruiting and advancement choices in my associations in my associations ought to be founded on their exhibition and authoritative guidelines as it were. CulD1772 4. 5. 18I have a feeling of individual fulfillment when I achieve testing assignments at my organisation73 4. 5. 19I accept that my representatives consistently follow bunch settled on choices regardless of whether their own feelings are against it. CulD1973 4. 5. 20I have representatives who by and large like to take a shot at their own without their gathering participation (CulD20)74 4. 5. 21I accept that my associations objectives is best estimated by the future accomplishments than the current accomplishments (CulD21)75 . 5. 22I concur that representative prizes and examinations ought not be founded distinctly on their exhibition (CulD22)75 4. 5. 23I accept that rules ought to be broken so as to accomplish innovation76 4. 5. 24I concur that duty to my customers and partners is significant in keeping up my relationship with them CulD2477 4. 5. 25I concur with the explanation that my workers esteem their dinner time and equals the initial investment when squeezed by testing assignments (CulD25)77 4. 6FURTHER ANALYSIS78 4. 6. 1Reliability Test78 4. 6. 2 Factor Analysis79 4. 6. 3Correlation Analysis81 4. 6. 3. 1Assumptions for correlationError! Bookmark not characterized. 4. 6. Trial of Hypothesis (H1a †H1e)82 4. 6. 4. 1Multiple Regression Analysis83 4. 6. 4. 2Assumptions checking for relapse analysis84 4. 6. 4. 3H1: All the Hofstede’s Cultural measurements identifies with Project Success among chiefs of private segment associations in Miri90 4. 6. 4. 4H1a: There is a connection between Power separation in supervisors (in private division associations) in Miri and determinants of task achievement. 91 4. 6. 4. 5H1b: There is a connection between the Societal Collectivism (Individualistic/Collectivist) property of administrators (in private area associations) in Miri and determinants of undertaking achievement. 91 4. 6. 4. H1c: There is a connection between sex separation of social qualities (Masculinity/Femininity) among directors (in private area associations) in Miri and determinants of undertaking achievement. 91 4. 6. 4. 7H1d: There is a connection between vulnerability shirking or the dread of questions among supervisors (in private area associations) in Miri and determinants of venture achievement. 92 4. 6. 4. 8H1e: There is a connection between Long term direction for objective achievement among chiefs (in private area associations) in Miri and determinants of venture achievement. 92 4. 6. 5Test Of Hypothesis (H2): Independent

The Backlash Of On Muslims - Free Essay Example

America is highly viewed as one of the biggest players in foreign affairs and international politics. The country has consistently pictured and seen itself as the beacon of human rights, the pioneer of freedom, and the figurehead of humanity and righteousness in the consistent fight against al-Qaida. It is, however, essential to note that the human rights and freedom that America proclaims to strictly stand for have been interfered with since the 9/11 incident. In essence, the actual image with regard to the city upon a hill or the American Dream is slowly crumbling under the heavy weight of post-9/11 law enforcement, Americas foreign policies, and public scaremongering of individuals that are perceived as Arabs. This particular essay will examine the manner in which Muslims receive harsh treatment after the backlash of 9/11 in the novel The Reluctant Fundamentalist by Mohsin Hamid. It will also incorporate the various themes that are exposed in the story Grandmas Tales and compare how the two relate. It will further discuss how the Muslims become legitimate targets and victims of negative media stereotypes, hate crimes, disappearance, physical beatings and interrogations at American airports, racial profiling, and detentions in secret places. Furthermore, the paper addresses the manner in which the above-mentioned treatment ideally shed light on the tough question of Muslim integration in the American citizenship, society, identity, multiculturalism, alienation, national affiliation, and belonging. In addition, it significantly disrupts the dominant American official discourse that portrays Muslims as what can be described as potential terrorists by linking Islam with terror and a potential threat to the United States as well as the values of Western civilization. The American global war on what they refer to terror has generally impacted the Muslim minorities in the Islamic world, and the entire globe to the various degrees of hardship and suffering and in the various areas of life. Muslims have, without a doubt of contradiction, been the worst affected. Their identity has affected their peace in other countries. Popular Muslim nations like Iraq and Afghanistan have significantly been consistently devastated and uprooted in the name of war on terror. Hence, the devastation experienced by Muslims in both material and human terms is somehow beyond estimation. The popularly known and historic 9/11 episode have played a big role in negatively impacting Muslims in the West. The mentioned impact is more visible in the United States of America more than any other place or country in the entire world. The effect is to be understood and observed in negative senses (Post -9/11 Islamophobia And The Future Of American Islam). In essence, the aspect of Islamophobia has substantially worsened due to the result of the September 11 incident as well as the subsequent war on terror. The Islamophobia phenomenon in the United States is normally equated with some kind of a general hatred and prejudice of Muslims and Islam. It is essential to note the fact that this started being experienced in the West long before the September 11. The Reluctant Fundamentalist by Hamid tends to offer some kind of a counter literary response to both the American public rhetoric as well as the dominant literary discourses that substantially prevailed immediately after the 9/11 incident. In essence, the situation consolidated stereotypes against Muslims and Islam and further inflamed the American sentiments. The novel ideally utilizes the character Changez to render a stark warning message that the American domineering policies, harsh treatment of Muslims, and the blind war on terror might eventually force a large number of Muslims to particularly relinquish the popular American Dream and further turn into radicals, just like Changez. The theme of discrimination has also been experienced in the Islamophobia issue. The reaction of the Americans towards the Muslims after the 9/11 attack has obviously been very indiscriminate, blind, and disproportionate to the extent that the controversial concept of multiculturalism on which the American community tends to be based is highly threatened (Considine). There are higher chances of the American community being prone to internal disintegration and fissures if they fail to stop blaming the Muslims and fail to accept others for very few isolated tragic kind of incidents, which they are not or may not be responsible for. In essence, the promotion of Islamophobia, mistreatment of Muslims, and the actual war on terror that ideally followed the 9/11 incident may potentially result in the alienation and exclusion of Muslims in America, the rise of Islam radial groups such as State of Syria and Iraq, and the disintegration of the American multicultural society. I can describe The Reluctant Fundamentalist as a primary and outstanding literary work after the 9/11 attacks. The novel substantially holds some kind of a magnifying glass up to the United States. It essentially views the negative effects of racial discrimination as well as racism to the reader. Moreover, the novel comes in handy in dismantling some of the specific Western religious biases and plays the role of effacing stereotypes towards the Muslims world and Islam (Considine). The Reluctant Fundamentalist is, however, controversially discussed as anti-American due to its ambiguity. In essence, Islamophobia was already a part of the Western social and intellectual scene in earlier years of racism and it was particularly viewed as an obvious expression of the response of the Western individuals with regard to the Islamic world and Islam. The 9/11 incident rejuvenated the actual creation of brand new images of Muslims and Islam in the minds of the Western public (Post -9/11 Islamophobia And The Future Of American Islam). The negative ridiculing and stereotyping of Islam and Muslims in general became more disturbing, especially when they came from some of the respectable church leaders as well as preachers in the West. The stubborn issue of Islamophobia has highly frustrated and angered a number of Muslims in both America and around the world. The same anger has been lively after the experience of the countless and unending invasions of Iraq and Afghanistan, which can be predominantly described or defined as Muslim countries (Post -9/11 Islamophobia and the Future of American Islam). The above-mentioned politically charged events as well as negative phenomena have highly resulted in violent reactions from some of the more extremist-prone elements of the wide-spread Muslim communities in the West. As a result, both European and American Muslims find themselves in a situation of only bearing the brunt of the so-called extreme reactions of the various rightist groups in the Western countries. The actual strength of Hamids great and outstanding narration in the novel lies in effectively connecting his developing human characters with symbolism. The mentioned author successfully manages to narrate his story through the main character by the name Changez. The character ideally addresses the authors story in the actual form of a dramatic kind of monologue to an individual who is only referred to as the American. It is essential to note that the American individual remains a silent listener in the entire story, despite his infrequent interruptions. Hamid tactfully narrates his story in the form of a one-sided conversation that exists between an American and an Arab. Humid utilizes the one-sided conversation to achieve and accomplish two things. First of all, he symbolically makes it possible for America to literally hear the other side of the story. The author, secondly, puts his audience or readers into the actual shoes of the American. Doing these enables Humid to somehow fo rce the reader to categorically make a personal decision on what to make with the controversial narration. In other words, the reader is left to decide on their own whether the American is an undercover agent or harmless. The reader is also left to decide whether Changez is a normal individual or a fundamentalist terrorist. The readers and American prejudices and stereotypes as well as the clich? ©s of Muslims and Arabs are efficiently mirrored to the reader. As a reader, I got a chance to evaluate and reflect my own individual stance with regard to the aspect of Islamophobia. The author of The Reluctant Fundamentalist essentially plays with the above-described stereotypical images in his narration but regularly dismantles each of them for purposes of countering Western biases. In essence, the beard and ethnicity of the character Changez in the novel stereotype him as a religious extremist. According to my analysis of Hamids work, I reached a conclusion that Changes is neither an extremist nor religious. He is just revealed as an academic and a secular person. On the other hand, the American is exposed as a personification of post-9/11 paranoia of the American citizen, who significantly distrusts Changez as well as other Arabs in the novel. The American character is likely to carry a weapon, sits with his back to a wall, and keenly watches his surroundings. The American is, thus, turned to what can be described as a reluctant fundamentalist by the author. In essence, Hamid characterizes him as substantially western in nature through his believes and biases. Besides, the fear of Muslims and Islam has significantly resulted in the authorization of random detentions, discrimination, and deportation of countless Muslims and Arabs. This kind of public hysteria as well as the incorporation of propagandist media has substantially has played the negative role of increasing the already pre-existing mean stereotypes of Muslims and Arabs. I, therefore, argue without a doubt of contradiction that Muslims and Arabs have lately become the newest American folk devil through elite-engineered moral panic and hyper-Orientalized media representation (Christine 106). The mentioned aspects have highly primed retaliatory and hostile public attitudes that have, in turn, legitimized random law enforcement, including public harassment and hostility, random profiling, and police surveillance. There exist a very dangerous spiral wave of counter reactions and negative reactions that has the potential of threatening the security and lives of Muslims who reside in the West. The fear has led to the formation of Islamic and Muslim movements in America that advocate for better treatment of the Muslims and the protection of their religion (Post -9/11 Islamophobia And The Future Of American Islam). The constitution of the United States clearly states that every individual in the country has a right to religion and worship. It, therefore, becomes hypocritical when some Americans mistreat Muslims for the assumption that they are terrorists in nature. The assumption does not seem to be sensible at all. In essence, one cannot judge a book by its cover. Being a Muslim or practicing Islam does not make one a terrorist. In essence, terrorists are individuals who merely hide in the Islamic religion. Anyone from any religion around the world can be a threat to the security of other individ uals in the society. It is unfortunate and uncalled for that Muslims are the only ones subjected to harassment and mistreatment because of the religion they chose. Hamids The Reluctant Fundamentalist specifically renders some kind of a warning message to readers and the American society at large. In essence the American international and domestic policies towards the Islamic world and Muslims after 9/11 have the potential of turning the ordinary Muslims into radicals if not changed (Williams 146). It further adds that violence is most likely to breed violence. The novel also exposes the fact that the American blind war on terror and their domineering policies have the potential of forcing countless ordinary Muslims to significantly relinquish the popular American Dream and later convert them into radicals, just like Changez. The pressing situation has forced the American Muslim society to essentially respond to the above-mentioned and described challenges of Islamophobia in different ways. The American Muslims have created various new alliances and alignments with countless non-Muslim American groups around the country in their tireless effort to potentially strengthen their actual and strategic position to effectively and efficiently counter the above-described damaging onslaught of Islamophobia in the United States and beyond (Post -9/11 Islamophobia And The Future Of American Islam). In essence, their consistent effort in the described direction or channel is substantially visible in quite a number of areas. The alliances are formed to encourage Americans to appreciate the existence of cultural differences and promote peaceful coexistence among Americans and Muslims. In conclusion, there exist a lot of activities in the ideal area of the interfaith dialogue that highly involve the followers and members of Christianity as well as Judaism. Besides, the political arena has significantly experienced some kind of a growing Muslim activism which comes in handy in assisting them to strategically position their actual influence in both her Democratic and Republican parties in America. The primary goal of the mentioned activism incorporates assisting them to effectively influence the American foreign policy. Furthermore, the Muslim professors and students in the United States have established and developed strong alliances with most of their non-Muslim friends and colleagues in the colleges and universities in pursuit of the common objective and goal of social freedom and justice. It is essential to note the fact that Hamid uses his novel The Reluctant Fundamentalist to essentially bring out the message that a lot of Muslims wish to live in dignity, peace, and prosperity, just like any other human being around the globe. Grandmas Tales also come in handy in exposing the above-mentioned and described themes in relation to Hamids novel. In essence, this is the right time for the entire world to find a way of facilitating such a healthy and conducive environment for them when it is still early. In simpler terms, not all Muslims are terrorists and you cannot judge an entire population for the mistake of a single one of them. It is not fair at all. There is need for the entire world to embrace Muslims and treat them like any other human being (Andrew). Making the world a better place incorporates standing for the truth and avoiding propaganda. The media is expected to be the mirror of the society and to report the truth.

Canadian Remembrance Day Quotes

In 1915, Canadian soldier  John McCrae whod served in the Second Battle of Ypres in Flanders, Belgium, wrote a poem called In Flanders Fields in remembrance of a fallen comrade whod died in battle  and was buried with a simple wooden cross as a marker. The poem describes similar graves throughout the fields of Flanders, fields that once alive with red poppies, now filled with the bodies of dead soldiers. The poem also highlights one of the ironies of war—that soldiers must die so that a nation of people might live. Commemorating Canadas As is the case with most of the British Commonwealth countries,  Remembrance Day in Canada is celebrated on November 11. To mark the occasion, Canadians observe a minute of silence and visit memorials to honor the soldiers sacrificed their lives for their country. The poppy symbolizes  Remembrance Day and is often worn as a sign of respect. At the National War Memorial, a ceremony is held to commemorate the soldiers. The Tomb of the Unknown Soldier is also an important landmark where people gather to honor the dead. Canada has always been known for its peaceful people, vibrant culture, and beautiful countryside. But even more than that, Canada is known for its patriotism. On Remembrance Day, take a moment to salute those patriotic men and women who served their nation by reading some of the quotes  below. Remembrance Day Quotations In Flanders Fields, the poppies blowBetween the crosses, row on row,That mark our place; and in the skyThe larks, still bravely singing, flyScarce heard amid the guns below.—John McCrae In war, there are no unwounded soldiers.—Jose Narosky The dead soldiers silence sings our national anthem.—Aaron Kilbourn But the freedom that they fought for, and the country grand they wrought for, is their monument today, and for aye.—Thomas Dunn English And they who for their country die shall fill an honored grave, for glory lights the soldiers tomb, and beauty weeps the brave.—Joseph Drake Patriotism is not dying for ones country, it is living for ones country. And for humanity. Perhaps that is not as romantic, but its better.—Agnes Macphail I am a Canadian, free to speak without fear, free to worship in my own way, free to stand for what I think right, free to oppose what I believe wrong, or free to choose those who shall govern my country. This heritage of freedom I pledge to uphold for myself and all mankind.—John Diefenbaker Our hopes are high. Our faith in the people is great. Our courage is strong. And our dreams for this beautiful country will never die.—Pierre Trudeau Whether we live together in confidence and cohesion; with more faith and pride in ourselves and less self-doubt and hesitation; strong in the conviction that the destiny of Canada is to unite, not divide; sharing in cooperation, not in separation or in conflict; respecting our past and welcoming our future.—Lester Pearson Canadian nationalism is a subtle, easily misunderstood but powerful reality, expressed in a way that is not  state-directed—something like a beer commercial or the death of a significant Canadian figure.—Paul Kopas We only need to look at what we are really doing in the world and at home and well know what it is to be Canadian.—Adrienne Clarkson

How did pop art challenge beleifs in consumerism Essay

How did pop art challenge beleifs in consumerism Introduction: In order to discuss pop art I have chosen to examine the work and to some extent lives of Roy Lichtenstein and Andy Warhol who were two of the main forces behind the American movement. I intend to reflect the attitudes of the public and artists in America at this time, while examining the growing popularity of pop art from its rocky, abstract expressionist start in the 1950s through the height of consumer culture in the 60s and 70s to the present day. Roy Liechtenstein, (fig 1) was born in 1923 into to a middle class Hungarian family living in New York, there was no artists on either side of his family and throughout Liechtenstein’s schooling there were no art†¦show more content†¦He continued his education at the Carnegie Institute in Pennsylvania graduating with a BA in Fine Art. Warhol moved to New York in 1948-49 where he started work as a graphic designer, creating adverts for fashion magazines such as Glamour, Vogue and Harper’s Bazaar. Andy Warhol shot to fame and soon became highly respected as a commercial artist. †Tina Fredrick, then art director of Glamour† says â€Å"She was thrilled by Andy’s drawings but could not find a commercial use for them. She told him his drawings were good, but Glamour could only use drawings of shoes at the moment. The next day Warhol came back with 50 drawings of shoes† footwear being an important part of his advertising career until the mid 1960s. In 1949 Harvey J Earl of General Motors pioneered ‘Planned Obsolescence’. He realised that by adding fashionable products when new trends come in older products would be discarded in favour of the latest fashion. This realisation changed consumerism forever and was the start of a consumer culture, which was to spread rapidly. In the 50s it was for the most part an American phenomenon due to the fact that they had the money and manufacturing productivity to make it possible, for example, â€Å"the affluence of America meant that almost every family owned a car† and food rationing was unthinkable while in Briton the opposite was

Changing Global Business Environment

Quetion: Discuss about the Changing Global Business Environment. Answer: Introduction: The global recession in 2008-2009 has assisted China to boost its economic position in the global context. The recession has deteriorated the financial position of the US and several robust European economies. However, the impact of the recession was marginal on the Chinese economy which has advanced its relative position in the international economy. In the present scenario, it is possible that China will attain the position of the global leader but due to several domestic challenges in the Chinese economy, such as unequal distribution of wealth, poor infrastructure and low living conditions in the rural areas It is a challenging scenario for China. In this essence, in this essay, the position of China in the world leadership role is explored. Along with it, the role of 2008 global crisis in the present situation of China and its reluctance to play leadership role is also discussed. The 2008 economic crisis is marked as one of the most important economic event in the recent history. The situations of the global crisis have resulted in huge blow to the US economy and financial infusion from the government prevented the economy from a huge crash. The economic recession also impacted major Asian economies such as Japan, China and India; however, the impact on these economies was relatively lower. Moreover, inspection of these economies shows shifts in the global polity and economy. The opening up of the Chinese economy and the economic modernization programs in China showed promising results and currently China has become a serious threat to the superpower position of the US economy. The Chinese economy is growing with a steady rate of 9 % annual rate and has become the third largest economy of the world (Nato Review, 2009). Due to the economic recession, the importance of the Chinese economy has grown due to its huge foreign currency reserves. It has also invested heavily to combat the impact of economic crisis in the country (Zhu, 2012). The Chinese government is also increasing its military expenditure and developed a strong army in the recent years (Gokay, 2009). Due to the minimal impact of the economic recession on the Chinese economy, it is growing at a phenomenal rate. The Chinese companies have also adopted the business model of assimilating innovative and technically advanced inventions in the western countries and improving them. It results in reduced economy of scale and increased profitability. The growing influence of China can be observed through several of its strategic initiatives such as principal lender in Latin America. It is also a prime investor in Africa, Saudi Arabia and Iran. These investments have increased the importance of China in the African and the Asian subcontinent. China is also known for its labor intensive industry and large manufacturing units. The Chinese products are used all across the globe due to their low costs (Cao, 2004). The Chinese economy is robust and largest manufacturing economy. Reluctance of China to play world leadership role Although the Chinese economy is growing at a phenomenal rate, it is observed that China remains reluctant to play the global leadership role in the world polity. The primary reason for it is that China wants to attain the peak point of the economic growth before actively participating in the economic situations of the other countries. It has a large population and geographical area which are a significant challenge in the economic growth of the country. The unnecessary leadership in global affairs will not contribute to the growth of the economy but will increase the number of disputes and create hurdles in its growth (Linehan, 2016). The country of China is also not psychologically prepared to play leadership role in the global affairs. It has a rigid notion of sovereign rights and problems related to the genocide, climate change and nuclear weapons; therefore, the Chinese leaders remain reluctant in condemning or excessively supporting the foreign policies of other countries. The C hinese government is also adopting the strategy of reluctance to avoid the demonstration of its power to the foreign countries. It will increase fearfulness and acknowledgment of the countrys power which will bring negative as well as positive reactions from the foreign countries (Schell, 2009). Chinas Domestic issues holding it back from the global leadership position There are also several cultural, financial and systematic factors that can prevent the country from holding the worlds leaders position. In the recent years, the economic development of the country has resulted in economic imbalance in the country. The business environment of the country is unsatisfactory for domestic business. There are several overheated markets for example property bubble which are threatened by reduced capital flow of the country. There are significant domestic challenges of the country which are needed to be overcome to obtain the status of economic superpower. The per capita income of the country is very low and is approximately one-tenth of the income in Japan and the USA. A significant sum of the Chinese population still lives in the rural areas without access to the basic living amenities. The rural population is still struggling to access education and healthcare facilities. Due to the oversized population, it is challenging for the county to become a super power. It is an atheist country and all types of religious practices are shunned in the country. It does not a specific political or ideological strategy which will create challenge for the country in establishing relations with its foreign counterparts (Scutt, 2016). Business implications of China becoming a superpower In the recent years, several changes are realized in the international business scenario, the primary of which is the growing power of China in global scenario. It has been predicted that in the upcoming years, the Chinese economy will be able to overtake US economy. Soon, it will also obtain high political power and rule globally. At present too, China holds a supreme presence in several African countries by investing heavily in it (Thrall, 2015). The economists have also stated that China will also be able to capture portions of Europe in a similar manner. However, there are several concerns associated with the growing power of China. One of the primary concerns is the contempt shown by the Chinese leaders for human right and democracy which may undermine the conditions and pay of the workers in the global arena (Obbema, 2015). China is set to become one of the largest economies in the world; however, with it certain changes will occur in the global economic scenario. Even when the China will become a superpower, the USA will also lead the global economy and it will result in bipolar economy. In this situation, the impact on the global economy will be dependent upon the relationship between the two countries. The China will become an influential country in the Asia and will create alliance with the other smaller Asian countries. The Chinese government will also try to make alliance with the Asian countries and make the economic structure independent by creating regional banks and financial institutions. Along with it, China will influence the relation with most of the countries in Central and South East Asia. Moreover, the present Chinese rise to the power can also face the challenge of lack of Imperialist Undertaking (Tsui et al. 2004). The Chinese military is not technically advanced compared to the USA a nd European countries. They also lack knowledge regarding advanced war tactics and strategies. In the recent economic development of the country, China has neglected its war capacity which has increased its vulnerability. Till now, the relations between China and the USA have been calm and peaceful. Both the countries have got along with each other due to their mutual interests. However, as China will rise as a superpower, the tension between both the countries will increase (Cerna, 2011). At present, the global financial system is controlled by the USA dollar and the American domestic and foreign policies. Therefore, China will try to create a global system which is independent of the American interference. An alternative financial system will increase chaos and confusion in the financial system. Changes in International environment with China becoming a superpower Over the last few years, the world has remained stable and peaceful in its economic activities. It is due to the fact that the Asian countries have agreed to work with their Western counterparts and their policies. The Asian countries have agreed as they have perceived that these institutions serve the global economic interest rather than the Western countries interests. However, the USA has taken several actions that have undermined the efficacy of these institutions. When China will rise to the power, it will challenge the financial institutions. It is apparent in the recent development of AIIB and BRICS banks. In addition to it, the Chinese rise to the superpower is different for different countries. For instance, India is neutral to the rise of China as a superpower. It is due to the fact that unlike other countries in South East Asia, it does not need the USA power to resist China. Russia will find the rise of China as a superpower suitable, as it will find a supporter to control the influence of the USA in the world. The European countries might support China silently; however, it is most likely that USA will oppose it strongly (Zhongying, 2016). It can be critiqued that whether the rising prominence of China is opposed or supported, it will play a significant role in the global economy in upcoming years. Chinese economy is also a major growth engine in the worlds economy. When most of the economies are lagging and stagnating at a very low pace, the Chinese economy is growing with an annual pace of 10%. Therefore, the Chinese economy remains a vital aspect in global economic growth. The Chinese economy is rebalancing and continues to shift from low cost manufacturing and exports to services and household contribution (Shaffer, 2016). In these changing circumstances, the global economy may benefit from the rebalancing. It will create aggregated demand which will steady the global economy growth rate. Moreover, China will also attain a governing role in the global economy with its increasing strength. The Chinese leaders will become more confident in taking a leadership role in the global economic and political governance (Hora sis, 2005). Over the last few years, several reforms introduced by the Chinese government have shown their results and the Chinese economy is characterized by advanced technology, infrastructure, innovation and skilled workforce. As per the above discussion, China has driven economic shift in the global context; however, it is not yet capable to become an economic superpower. It is not sustainable power as it is highly imbalanced. In order to become a global economic power it has to change its role and become an active member in economic and political forums (Wolf, 2016). It can be deduced that China will soon become an economic rival of the USA and diminish the status of the USA as the economic superpower. The economic recession of 2008-2009 has also damaged the strength of the USA economy. The Chinese economy is capable of taking up the leading position due to its size and constant growth. In November, 2008, the Chinese government invested three trillion dollars to boost the economic strength of the country. Although there is strong evidence that suggests the growing power of Chinese economy, the country itself has been reluctant to take up the position of the world leader. Therefore, if the stand of China remains same, the growth of Chinese economy will have little impact on other economies. It can be scrutinized by the recent actions of country wherein it has been reluctant to interfere in the political and economic conditions of other countries. In addition, China being a developing country has its own issues and political agenda. Therefore, according to the present situations, there are least chances that the country will become a global leader in near future; however, the global economy may become multipolar due to the emergence of several promising economies. References Cao, C., 2004. Challenges for Technological Development in Chinas Industry. Foreign investors are the main providers of technology.China Perspectives, (54). Cerna, M. (2011). Chinas Growing Presence in Latin America: Implications for U.S. and Chinese Presence in the Region. China Research Centre, 10(1). Gokay, B. (2009). The 2008 World Economic Crisis: Global Shifts and Faultlines. Global Research. Retrieved 2 January 2017 from https://www.globalresearch.ca/the-2008-world-economic-crisis-global-shifts-and-faultlines/12283 Horasis. (2005). Chinas New Role in the Global Arena. Retrieved 2 January 2017 from https://www.horasis.org/press_releases_all_74.php Linehan, M. (2016). Chinas Growing Economic Clout In Asia Challenges US Dominant System. Frontera News. https://fronteranews.com/news/asia/chinas-relations-east-asia-mounting-challenge-us-dominated-system/ Nato Review. (2009). Will the Financial Crisis make China a Superpower? Retrieved 2 January 2017 from https://www.nato.int/docu/review/2009/financialcrisis/Financial-Crisis-China/EN/index.htm Obemma, F. (2015). We fear China's growing power. But it is morally reprehensible to celebrate the country's woes. Independent. Retrieved 2 January 2017 from https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/comment/we-fear-chinas-growing-power-but-it-is-morally-reprehensible-to-celebrate-the-countrys-woes-10476332.html Schell, O. (2009). Unless Beijing assumes its global responsibility, the US will be left to act alone. Yale Global. Retrieved 2 January 2017 from https://yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/china-reluctant-lead Scutt, D. (2016). The imbalances in China's economy that created previous problems are making a comeback. Business Insider. Retrieved 2 January 2017 from https://www.businessinsider.com.au/the-imbalances-in-chinas-economy-that-created-previous-problems-are-making-a-comeback-2016-5 Shaffer, L. (2016). The curious case of Chinas remarkably consistent economic growth. CNBC. Retrieved 2 January 2017 from https://www.cnbc.com/2016/10/18/china-gdp-grows-in-line-with-estimates-in-third-quarter.html Thrall, L. (2015). Chinas Expanding African Relations Implications for U.S. National Security. Santa Monica, Calif: RAND Corporation. Tsui, A. S., Schoonhoven, C. B., Meyer, M. W., Lau, C. M., Milkovich, G. T. (2004). Organization and management in the midst of societal transformation. The People's Republic of China. Organization science, 15(2), 133-144. Wolf, M. (2016). Chinas future challenge for the world economy. Financial Times. Retrieved 2 January 2017 from https://www.ft.com/content/9bae5ce0-f1db-11e5-aff5-19b4e253664a Zhongying, P. (2016). What is China's role in global governance? Chin Daily. Retrieved 2 January 2017 from https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/opinion/2016-12/21/content_27728534.htm Zhu, X. (2012). Understanding China's Growth: Past, Present, and Future. JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC PERSPECTIVES 26(4), 103-24. 1

The Lost City Of Atlantis Essays - Atlantis, Plato,

The Lost City Of Atlantis I have discovered the long lost city of Atlantis. I am about 15 miles off the West Coast of the Hawaiian Islands. I have found many artifacts and a few buildings intact at the bottom of the ocean. I have found an extremely large building with many rooms that I believe to be a palace of some sort. I have also found gold, silver, and many other jewels inside of this building. I have found what I believe is the king in the largest room, which I believe, is a throne room. He was a very wealthy man with many loyal subjects. He must have been a very powerful leader; because, it looks as if his many subjects are worshipping him. This civilization is extremely advanced for I have discovered a library, a church, many chariots, what looks like a war room, and a slaves quarters. In the library, many scrolls and books were beyond legibility and preservation. I found a few that were legible and they appear to use ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics. I was able to decipher a few passages and they read, In our Final Days of War the enemy is strong, but we are stronger and slowly destroying our enemy. Now our enemy wants a truce or he claims he will destroy us with the magic of their god. The only reason they say that we are still alive is that they require our advanced technology. They claim their god grows weary of our resistance, and will sink us to the bottom of the sea if we do not comply with their wishes. Eventhough, they threaten us we still fight on strong and will continue to fight until we are all dead. We will not forfeit our technology to such scum. I have not yet found any other legible recordings to try to decipher. This civilization is almost as advanced if not more advanced than the pilgrims were when they landed at Plymouth. As I go farther into this civilization and discover more I will record my findings and keep this record updated as much as possible. Mythology Essays

Odysseus As The Epic Hero Essays - Odyssey, Odysseus, Calypso

Odysseus As The Epic Hero Essays - Odyssey, Odysseus, Calypso Odysseus As The Epic Hero Odysseus's Journey to Becoming The Epic Hero Outline I. Introduction - In Homer's The Odyssey the tale of a man's journey back home after long years at war is also the tale of a man's spiritual journey through his own soul. II. The beginning - Odysseus leaves Troy feeling almost immortal and this pride is what leads to his downfall and second rise. III. The middle - Odysseus undergoes his symbolic death and rebirth. IV. The end - Odysseus has regained power over his household and has restored order to his life. V. Conclusion In Homer's The Odyssey, the tale of a man's journey home after long years at war, is also the tale of a man's spiritual journey through his own soul. Odysseus' role as an epic hero is modified throughout the epic poem. As Odysseus leaves Troy for home, he is the typical bloodthirsty warrior. During the course of his trek, he undergoes a symbolic death and rebirth. Upon his arrival in Ithaka, the wiser man he has become is evident. The Odyssey is Odysseus' story of his journey not only from Troy to Ithaka, but also from bloodthirsty warrior to epic hero. Odysseus begins the tale of his trip from Troy to Phaiakia in Book IX. The beginning of his tale displays the bloodthirsty warrior that left Troy. What of those years of rough adventure, weathered under Zeus? The wind that carried west from Ilion Brought me to Ismaros, on the far shore, A strongpoint on the coast of Kikones. I stormed that place and killed the men who fought. The first lines of Odysseus' story display his warrior side. This passage shows how he and his crew landed and immediately went to battle and plundered. Although Odysseus recalls telling his men to stop afterwards and return to the ship, he never really forcibly tried to make the men return. The lack of effort on Odysseus' part implies that he did not truly care if the men ransacked Ilion. Due to this greed and bloodlust, nearly a third of each ship's crew was lost. This bloodthirsty warrior cared only for battle and blood, instead of his men and his return home. After stopping on the island of Aiaia, the home of Kirke, Odysseus journeys to Hades. This represents a symbolic death for Odysseus. There he must speak with Teirasias to hear the prophet's visions for Odysseus's journey home. Teirasias predicts that the journey can take two paths; either a peaceful journey home, or if the crew and Odysseus can not restrain their desires, death and destruction will befall the crew. Odysseus and his crew do not heed Teirasias's warning, and the entire crew save Odysseus is lost at sea. After nine years on Kalypso's island Odysseus finally continues his journey home. The strong god glittering left her as he spoke, And now her ladyship, having given heed To Zeus's mandate, went to find Odysseus In his stone seat to seaward-tear on tear Brimming his eyes. The sweet days of his life time Were running out in anguish over his exile, For long ago the nymph had ceased to please. Though he fought shy of her and her desire, He lay with her each night, for she compelled him. But when day came he sat on the rocky shore And broke his own heart groaning, with his eyes wet Scanning the bare horizon of the sea. Odysseus had begun to lose hope of ever getting home. Kalypso grudgingly gives in to Zeus' order and aids Odysseus in obtaining wood for a ship. After nineteen days at sea, he is battered in a vicious storm and washes up half-unconscious, bloody, and naked in Phaiakia. This episode represents a symbolic rebirth for Odysseus. His time of incubation on Kalypso's isle is over and he emerges naked and bloody - like the day he was born. Once he has landed on Phaiakia, Odysseus realizes that he can not continue on as a bloodthirsty warrior, but rather must heed the wisdom passed on to him by those he met in Hades and change his outlook. It is at this point that Odysseus begins to fully comprehend the effects his actions have on those around him, as well as on his future. Only now is he truly ready for his tumultuous return to Ithaka. By the time

How is technology helping our understanding of future architectural Essay

How is technology helping our understanding of future architectural space throughout film representation and use of mixed realit - Essay Example Previously, architecture was restricted to the simple two dimensional representations of drawings. Through film media, it is possible to create realistic and fathomable representation of architectural visualizations. The architectural designs create new avenues of creative thinking by analyzing the potential of the film depictions and the possibility of implementing the ideas in the real world (Hiller, 1996). Representing the experience of space Architectural designs are invariably communicated through representation. The link between the architect’s ideas and their implementation is through the process of representation. Traditionally, the most pervasive mode of representation has been through drawing of sketches to showcase the features that the architect wishes to express. In the final stages of architectural design, representation is done by technical drawings. However, these traditional representation methods are limited since they cannot allow one to fully experience spa ce. Film has immense potential to add visual elements into architectural design. Through the use of film media, an architectural design can be experienced in an augmented reality (Aroztegui, 2010). It is possible to append the notion of motion into the representation of architectural design through film. ... Through the use of advanced computer graphics, architectural designs can be represented in films creatively to an extent that one feels to be transported to another space. By using a scripted narrative, film cultivates the concept of space in a compelling space. The interconnection of all senses during a film representation of architectural design makes experience of space to be near reality (Henzel & Menges, 2009). Also, space and body are closely related and they can be tied together through experience. Thus, film can bring futuristic architectural designs into perspective and help in the progress of architecture. Filming and architecture: Filming space and embodiment The core purpose of a film is to create compelling scenes that are as close to reality as possible to keep the audience captivated. The best films are those that immerse their audience in their narration and representation: so much that the audience feels to be actually transported to another place and time as depicte d in the film (Awan et al, 2009). For true appreciation, architecture has to be experienced in the perspective of reality so that the audience can relate to it. The eye is primarily the means by which people relate and experience space. Architectural designs in film are sculpted through a combination of visual and audio narration. The audience identifies with the film’s representation first through the gaze of the camera and seeing architectural objects from a vantage point. As the audience is captivated by this vision, they are bound to engage other senses into the narration. Evidently, the narration and representation in the film can trigger the imagination of the audience

The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde by Robert Louis Essay

The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde by Robert Louis - Essay Example Stevenson uses an innovative approach to portray the human soul as a battlefield for an â€Å"angel† and a â€Å"fiend† who are foes in a battle for the possession of the human soul. Every human being contains these opposite forces within him, an alter ego that hides behind a social and polite everyday facade. Jekyll asserts that â€Å"man is not truly one, but truly two,† that one is never black nor white and that the situation at hand always brings out more of one side or the other. Jekyll’s potion that was initially meant to separate and purify these two elements, the angel from the fiend, only manages to bring out the dark side into being. Hyde emerges from the depths of Jekyll, but he brings forth no angelic counterpart. It is left to be argued whether or not this role of the angelic counterpart is left for Jekyll. It is more than obvious that his demeanor is outright moral and decent, and he enjoys the repute of a benevolent, well-mannered and genial man, yet he never embodies the virtue of good equally as Hyde embodies the very opposite from it. He merely portrays civilized behavior and morals, leaning towards good. In his bold and philanthropic efforts, he takes it upon himself to purify the good, but he ends up liberating the darkness from the shackles of conscience.

Interview Assignment- Relating to Autism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Interview Assignment- Relating to Autism - Essay Example Why physical therapy for autism, an apparently mental condition? The physical therapist I interviewed noted that the Cartesian mind-body dualism is the root of the misconception that physical illnesses need physical approaches to heal and mental illnesses need the same. Autism is defined as a pervasive developmental disorder: Development is delayed and impaired in many areas, including motor skills both gross and fine. Physical therapy helps autistics develop those skills and reduce the gap between them and the outside world in this fashion. Further, the physical therapist I interviewed found that above the strictly clinical benefits, physical therapy is really useful for autistics because it gets them out of the house, gives them something to do that helps them manage all the sensations and focus their perception, and makes them feel more normal. Training autistics with physical therapy can help them participate in normative social experiences like sports: This is especially importa nt for child autistics, who will find it easier to connect with their peer groups by skipping, playing jump rope or hopskotch, or playing in ball games. The occupational therapist I interviewed argued that occupational therapy was basically the mental flipside of the physical therapy.

Summary of Expo Center :: essays research papers

An Informative Summary of â€Å"Japanese Hospitality Robots Debut at World Expo† Tsuno, Yoshikazu â€Å"Japanese Hospitality Robots Debut At World Expo.† 9 Mar 2005.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  SpaceDaily 1 Apr 2005 . The 2005 World Exposition in Nagkute, Japan will present technical wonders to the public. The World Expo runs in the central Aichi region for six months starting March 25. Japan uses the expo to display its technological might. Interactive Robots on display will be the main attraction. The Expo includes robots that resemble young women, called Actroid, in information booths that speak four languages. Guest felt awkward due to Actroid’s realistic human features. The designers wanted the most honest reaction from the guest. Three versions of the Actroid with different faces will be mobilized at the Expo. Japan hopes Actroid will draw 15 million visitors to its industrial heartland. There are also security contingent robots on wheels and tiny colorful machines that sing. The Alsok guard robot has a touch panel in its chest to provide directions to visitors. If Alsok detects suspicious people it will try to scare them away with sirens and lights. Alsok can also detect fires and report them to a security center. For small children there is the child-care robot PaPeRo. With built-in cameras and microphones, it can recognize the faces of children and say their names. The PaPeRo also sings with children and quizzes them, recognizing who voice even if they try to trick it. With the expo running for six months, the public will see many advances in robotics created to interact with humans. Even thou we are able to see and interact with them, it will be some time before the public can purchase them. Japanese Hospitality Robots Debut At World Expo Japanese robot venture Kokoro's humanoid robot 'Actroid', able to recognize 40,000 phrases in four languages, Japanese, Korean, Chinese and English, guides visitors at a reception for the 2005 World Exposition Aichi in Nagkute near Nagoya, central Japan 07 March 2005. Japan will welcome the millions of guests at the World Exposition opening this month with hosts trained to greet them in their language, entertain their children and perform rap music with them - the gracious hosts are robots. AFP photo by Yoshikazu Tsuno. by Yoshikazu Tsuno Nagakute, Japan (AFP) Mar 09, 2005 Japan will welcome the millions of guests at the World Exposition opening this month with hosts trained to greet them in their language, entertain their children and perform rap music with them.

Catcher In The Rye Essay

A journey is more than a physical movement from one place to another. All journeys no matter how arduous entail setbacks and barriers that must be met. In doing so the traveller experiences a more significant inner journey of self growth. This is evident in the journey from adolescence to adulthood during which setbacks and barriers may entail a loss of innocence. J. D Salinger’s novel the Catcher in the rye explores this concept through various literary techniques. ( thesis) Loss of innocence as a major issue within the concept of a rites of passage is explored by J. D Salinger through the protagonist Holden Caulfield. His journey appears to be one self destructive act after another. This adult world into which Holden is forced into disturbs him profoundly. In his view, the adults who dwell this world, seem to be filled with phoniness, pretence and social compromise. He finds it almost intolerable to communicate with most adults and peers. This is prevalent throughout the book when he constantly brings up the question of what happens to the ducks in winter. The adults’ response to this recurring question is of contemn and expectation to know the answer, therefore never giving him an adequate explanation. This clearly demonstrates how his innocent mind conflicts with this phony adult world, and his response, is to rebel against this whole society. â€Å" quote† Holden expresses his rebellion through his inability to progress in life and his hatred of people. It is really only in children that he sees the true simplicity of honesty- and that is his escape from this adult phony world. Salinger portrays the transition from adolescence to adulthood as a quest for self identity and self discovery. For Holden however, his journey is a bombardment of obstacles in his search for connection with others, thus highlighting the angst of growing up. Holden finally breaks down with the constant disappointments and let downs he encounters. â€Å"quote ans technique† From his fight with Stradlater to Maurice’s exploitation of a prostitute, to Mr Antolini’s behaviour, Holden just cannot handle any more letdowns so his odyssey is one of loneliness and cynicism. An example of this is when Holden abruptly gives Sally an ultimatum to leave their current lives behind and build a future without the promise of stability. Sally’s refusal to this proposal results in Holden lashing out at her hence elucidating Holden’s naivety. And, just like a kid, he thinks that everyone is to blame except for him. The inability to meet setbacks and barriers and accept a loss of innocence within the jouney from adolescence to adulthood will inevitably lead to ones downfall. The deliberate irony is that Holden strives to act as a grown up but constantly acts like a child is seen in his provocation of his peers and his irrational thinking. â€Å"quote † The title of the book, â€Å"Catcher in the Rye,† is more than just a pretty ditty. It is Holden’s dream to be the catcher in the rye, thus save little children from falling off the cliff into adulthood. â€Å"Anyway, I keep picturing all these little kids playing some game in this big field of rye and all. Thousands of little kids, and nobody’s around–nobody big, I mean–except me. And I’m standing on the edge of some crazy cliff. What I have to do, I have to catch everybody if they start to go over the cliff–I mean if they’re running and they don’t look where they’re going. I have to come out from somewhere and catch them. That’s all I’d do all day. I’d just be the catcher in the rye and all. I know it’s crazy, but that’s the only thing I’d really like to be. † Holden is adamant on playing the adult role of protecting children and their innocence that gets lost in the adult phony world. He envisions protecting and shielding children from the evils of society, when he himself is one who is in a state of conflict between adolescence and adulthood. However, it is through the telling of his story that Holden eventually gains control of his disturbed past. His search for self identity and discovery can be seen as a search for tolerance, acceptance and understanding- something that he finally experiences in the final scene with Phoebe riding the carrousel. When he see’s Phoebe on the carrousel, he accepts that he is not a child anymore indicating that he is perhaps more accepting of change. Towards the end, Holden has found some wisdom when he claims to â€Å"sort of miss everyone. † There was some light for him at the end of the tunnel- and that light is hope and acceptance that he doesn’t live in such an evil world that he made out to be. Holden wants desperately to protect this idealistic life but perhaps he realises at the end that it is not possible and that maturity is a means of accepting what life throws at one. How he deals with obstacles along the way conveys Holden’s journey from adolescence into adulthood.

The conflicts of Pan Tadeusz Free Essay Example, 1000 words

Pan Tadeusz mimics the elements of everyday existence. However, it does not narrate a fairy-tale of a problematic champion. All the characters are ordinary persons immersed in their community and not experiencing seclusion. The superb solidarity between the personas in the epic and the universe that is their destiny is a paramount trait of the sonnet. Pan Tadeusz encompasses vital details of the Polish people. It is lucid and straightforward in its attraction of its prospective readers. This explicated by the fact that extremely few words require elucidations with regard to it origin. It evokes an enormous intensity of emotion which occasionally leads into sentimentality. Other emotions transform into lyric fervour. It is a superb truth with regard to the concrete facts of the sonnet. It raises many subjects that influenced the Polish society at the time. It is also superb due to the utilization of general feelings. Pan Tadeusz is a masterpiece that attempts to amalgamate the exiles with the nation. Conflicts from Pan Tadeusz Difference between Gerwazy and Father Robak This dispute climaxes in a dreadful satire. Father Robak experiences a heroic change from a convict to a contrite to an outstanding Polish hero. We will write a custom essay sample on The conflicts of Pan Tadeusz or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/pageorder now He battles against the autonomous and disruptive squabbling of the inferior gentility. He is argumentative and plants discord among individuals. However, he transforms and desires to abolish this evil from the Polish community. Conversely, Gerwazy is slow in doing the same. He values nature and customs interrelating serpentine lines. He manipulates Horeszko and eventually seeks coalition with Dobrzynskis. He remains a superb squire, disruptive and tussling and destructs the rebellion that Robak organizes. These opposed characters portray a brutal conflict in the sonnet. The brutal arguing and all the evils are what the two characters depict of the landed gentry. The theme of the catastrophic conflict reflects ambivalence of Fate and the element of Man disparate from History (Mickiewicz, p.160). Difference between Tadeusz and Horeszko Tadeusz comes back from his schooling to the mansion belonging to his uncle in Lithuania. At approximately the same juncture, Horeszko arrives from his journey in Europe. Horeszko discovers his household is in disorder and under possession by his colleague Soplica. Horeszko’s involvement in barsk’s confederacy caused his wealth to be seized. After Horeszko loses his affluence, the clan feels that he has lost his ancient, enormous significance.

Essay about Emilias Intelligence in Shakespeares Othello

In Shakespeares tragedy, Othello, Emilia expresses her underrated intelligence to prove others beliefs against her. Unlike the other women in the book, Emilia understands men and their thinking; therefore she shows no shame for standing up for what she believes in. Emilia unexpectedly ruins her husbands plan, which suddenly alters the outcome the story. Emilia without a doubt out smarts everyone, including her own brilliant husband, Iago, but little does he know that his loyal wife surprisingly ruins his plan. By gaining his trust, Emilia soon realizes Iagos conniving plan and uses that against him in the end. Considering Iago has no idea what Emilia knows about his plan, he ignores her underrated intelligence. To gain Iagos trust,†¦show more content†¦In addition, Emilia proves her underrated intelligence by standing up for what she believes is right. Desdemona, Othellos wife, and Emilias relationship grows because of her great loyalty towards her. At the end of the play Em ilia stands up for Desdemona because Othello kills her. She explains Desdemonas true love for him and would never do anything to hurt him, which proves Desdemonas innocence. Not only does Emilia stand up for Desdemona, but she also voices her opinion to Othello. Emilia shows no fear standing up to Othello to prove to him that his wife has always been faithful. At first Othello finds it implausible but then Emilia says, Thou art rash as fire, to say that she was false. O, she was heavenly true! (Shakespeare V: ii, 165-166).Women are looked at in Othello as unintelligent and unfaithful, but Emilia changes that stereotype by standing up to the men. From the start Emilia and Iagos relationship always seemed rocky. Emilias confidence in herself shows that she is not afraid to stand up to her husband. Emilia realizes the danger she puts herself in when she stands up to Iago. In order to make things right, she does whatever it takes, even if that means ruining their marriage or taking her life.Show MoreRelatedOthello - Female Stereotypes Essay1108 Words   |  5 PagesTuesday, March 6th, 2012 Othello Essay In â€Å"Othello,† William Shakespeare extensively explores female stereotypes that occur during the playwright’s time. Throughout the Shakespearian era, women were seen as the inferior sex, over whom men had complete control and thus forcing women to act submissively and obediently in front of their husbands. Men believed that women were objects who just cooked meals, cleaned the house, and bore children while society just accepted these degrading roles. WilliamRead MoreEssay Tough Love in William Shakespeare’s play, Othello1099 Words   |  5 PagesIn William Shakespeare’s tragic play, Othello, Desdemona asserts, â€Å"‘wouldst thou do such a deed for all the world?’† (4.3.76). During a friendly banter, Desdemona asks Emilia this very question; would she cheat on her husband to help him become monarch and have power over all the world? She quietly replies that she would only in secret, but only for her husband’s own good. Thi s question plays an essential role throughout Othello because Emilia is first accused of cheating on her husband. AdditionallyRead More Balance and Tragedy in Shakespeares Othello Essay2006 Words   |  9 Pagesindividuals and prevented them from acting in an honest manner. In Othello, Shakespeare created the character of Emilia to perfectly represent the struggles women faced with fitting into their roles in society. The few female characters in the play were all shown in very different lights in order to demonstrate the varying types of women that could be seen in a normal society during that time. In William Shakespeare’s work Othello, Emilia’s imbalance of logic and emotion, a result of the pressures fromRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s Othello - Lack Of Respect And Authority1452 Words   |  6 PagesWilliam Shakespeare’s, Othello, expresses the lack of respect and authority given to women during Shakespeare’s time. Throughout the piece, women are repeatedly put in positions subordinate to men and are stripped of a voice. Women in this piece are portrayed as â€Å"belongings† to men, and never resist how they are treated. Iago is able to use women in his plan, like pawns in a chess game, to benefit himself. However, it is a woman in the end who puts the pieces together and solves Iago twisted plotRead More Iago Essay1146 Words   |  5 Pages Iago, More than Just a Villain Iago, the evil villain of Shakespeares Othello, is more than just a villain. In many ways he is the most intelligent and appealing character in the play. Iago shows superiority over the rest of the characters in the play. He has the ability to manipulate the characters in the play, therefore controlling the play with every sequence of events. His intelligence shines through his ability to deceive, his ability to strategize, and his ability to twist the truth. IagoRead More Non-masculine Roles in Othello Essay2025 Words   |  9 PagesNon-masculine Roles in Othello  Ã‚        Ã‚   In William Shakespeare’s tragic drama Othello the three women characters have interesting roles. Through the dialogue and action other roles are stated or implied as applying to women.    In â€Å"Historical Differences: Misogyny and Othello† Valerie Wayne presents Desdemona’s reaction to Iago’s verbal expressions concerning women’s role as sexual objects:    Iago instead claims that four different kinds of women are sexually wanton: either theirRead MoreA Scrutiny of Othellos Character as a Tragic Hero2197 Words   |  9 PagesIn Othello, the Moor of Venice, the titular character, Othello, is the protagonist and subject to scrutiny as to whether or not he is a tragic hero in the conventional Aristotelian definition of the term. Aristotle believed a tragedy served to exercise the mature citizens moral sensibilities (Ferrari, 1999, p. 181). There are several different components of Aristotles definition of a tragic hero, which essentially serve as a set of criteria to determine whether or not Othello truly is a tragic

U.S. Virgin Islands as a Vacation Spot Essay - 539 Words

US Virgin Islands has a lot to offer whatever it is you are looking for. I am sure you can find it there. The US Virgin Islands are my favorite place outside of Philadelphia because of it stunning landscaping, unlimited duty free shopping and outstanding weather. In US Virgin Islands you can enjoys all activities anything from water sports around the island to a short boat trip to St. John?s and St. Croix. You can take advantage of the duty free shopping or enjoy yourself on the beautiful sandy beaches. Charlotte Amalie is the capital of the United States Virgin Islands and one of the most popular cruise ports in the Caribbean. Charlotte Amalie is where the cruise ships dock and the white and pastel houses are heavily sprinkled against†¦show more content†¦Magens Bay is a beautiful one mile stretch of white sand located on St. Thomas?s southern end. The beach offers calm crystal clear blue water with a little current which is great for just floating around. Snorkeling is available along the rocky coast which is beautiful. The palm trees are perfectly placed along the edge of the beach therefore, if you want some shade it is available. US Virgin Islands is home to world famous shopping. Hundreds of duty free shops line the streets and alleys of the capital of St. Thomas, Charlotte Amalie. Multiple buildings in Havensight, where most cruise ships dock, house shops and boutiques. There are smaller malls around the island and even the larger hotels offer shopping. The best buys in the islands include jewelry, alcohol, china, crystal, perfumes, art, clothing, watches and cameras. Most of the jewelry stores offer stones that are not available in the states. These stones include blue diamonds, canary diamonds, colored topazes and much more. Most of these stones are not available in the states because of the price. In the US Virgin Islands theses purchases are duty free and tax free. The weather in US Virgin Islands is always beautiful and on an average 80 ° F year round. The sun is hot and there is always a light wind which keeps you cool while on the beach sunbathing or enjoying shopping. There is never a cloud in the sky and never a rain shower during the day. The weather is also great forShow MoreRelatedThe Caribbe A Vacation Destination For Guests Of All Ages1096 Words   |  5 Pageshas some beautiful vacation destinations that offer a plethora of activity opportunities and experiences for families, backpackers and honeymooners alike. Whether it is about a culinary trip or a relaxed couple’s retreat in a secluded beachfront villa, Caribbean destinations have it all to fulfill your wishes of an once-in-a-lifetime vacation. With wide choices of lodging to choose from and endless activity opportunities, each destination in the Caribbean is a dream vacation spot in itself. Plus, thereRead MoreGo to The Caribbean1203 Words   |  5 Pagesnatural wonders, and beautiful beaches the various islands have to offer. These islands include the serene landscape of Bermuda, the eco-tourism of Puerto Rico, duty free shopping of U.S. Virgin Islands, Bahamas and many more luxurious islands the Caribbean has to offer. Family vacation-U.S Virgin Island Anyone who enjoys saving money while shopping should definitely take a visit to the U.S Virgin Islands. Travelers can even go island hopping to St Croix or St John. The culture is wonderfulRead MoreThe Impact of September 11, 2001 Essay examples1209 Words   |  5 Pagesonly affected the US but everyone around the world. During the aftermath, we learned that we lost one of our native virgin islanders. US Army, Staff Sargent Maudlyn A. White, 38, born on St. Croix died on active duty in the Pentagon. She was described as a quiet person who was independent. Not only were the Virgin Islands affected by her death, but also the financial decline the islands started to experience. After September 11, the Caribbean was dramatically impacted; security levels rose, tourismRead MoreWinter Camping Can Be A Disaster1860 Words   |  8 Pagess the outdoors, a place where everyone owns a slice, regardless of economic challenges, age, race or religion. It s ours if we re willing to experience it and considerate enough to think about those co-owners who may pitch their tent on the same spot days, weeks, perhaps even decades later. Every camper knows the anguish of arriving at a trashed campsite. Bags are blowing in the breeze, cans and boxes litter about and grease floats in the trout stream you were ready to fish. Litter can be pickedRead MoreShould Welfare Recipients Be More Selective? For Recipients Of Welfare?1798 Words   |  8 Pagesfor those who stay true to the welfare programs. Some welfare recipients are using their EBT cards to pay for a vacation or some luxurious item which is payed for by taxpayers. People go out and work all day so that they can provide for themselves but also pay their taxes which then goes to the welfare programs, so it is completely unethical for the recipients to go out and take vacations when the people paying for it might not be able to afford these kinds of trips. In his article Welfare RecipientsRead MoreVirgin Blue Annual Report47891 Words   |  192 Pagesworked for a company where I’ve had so much opportunity to broaden my horizons, both career-wise and travel-wise.† Margaret lewis, Cash Management accountant More than four years service pictured: Five members of the Van Dongen family who all work for Virgin Blue. the report. annual report 2009 From left: – First officer luke Van Dongen – Cabin Supervisor Clare Van Dongen – Captain arch Van Dongen – First officer Jacinta Van Dongen – Captain Ben Van Dongen â€Å"Each day brings a new adventure! WorkingRead MoreShort Cases19708 Words   |  79 Pagesacquisition cost of $12.50; annual margin, $15; and 60 percent customer retention rate. c. Distribution Strategy: In addition to CDs, Sonik distributed products for other online retailers. AmeriNet Radio operated 43 radio stations in the southeast U.S. and sold CDs though its stations’ websites. It approached Sonik for an exclusive arrangement. Sonik would close its retail operations and become the sole distributor for all CDs sold through AmeriNet’s websites, charging its normal handling fee. Sonik’sRead MoreUnited Arab of Emirates Country Notebook18844 Words   |  76 Pagesabove 90m (300ft). Furthermore Dubai has been the world ´s catalyst regarding construction and project development until the world economic crises started. The world was able to witness the creation of palm jumeirah the world’s biggest artificial island. UAE has become the source of new developments in order to differentiate their country to others. Within the UAE each area takes a different approach. III- Social Institutions: A-Family: The United Arab Emirates(UAE) is part of the Gulf StatesRead MoreUnited Arab of Emirates Country Notebook18844 Words   |  76 Pagesabove 90m (300ft). Furthermore Dubai has been the world ´s catalyst regarding construction and project development until the world economic crises started. The world was able to witness the creation of palm jumeirah the world’s biggest artificial island. UAE has become the source of new developments in order to differentiate their country to others. Within the UAE each area takes a different approach. III- Social Institutions: A-Family: The United Arab Emirates(UAE) is part of the Gulf StatesRead MoreInnovators Dna84615 Words   |  339 Pagesdisruptive innovation to show how individuals can develop the skills necessary to move progressively from idea to impact. By identifying behaviors of the world’s best innovators—from leaders at Amazon and Apple to those at Google, Skype, and Virgin Group—the authors outline ve discovery skills that distinguish innovative entrepreneurs and executives from ordinary managers: Associating, Questioning, Observing, Networking, and Experimenting. Once you master these competencies (the authors

Introduction to Epidemiology Free Essays

Aug 17 2011 Introduction to Epidemiology Epidemiology is considered the basic science of public health, and with good reason. Epidemiology is: †¢ †¢ †¢ A quantitative basic science built on a working knowledge of probability, statistics, and sound research methodology A method of causal reasoning based on developing and testing hypotheses pertaining to occurrence and prevention of morbidity and mortality A tool for public health action to promote and protect the public’s health based on science, causal reasoning, and a dose of practical common sense (2). As a public health discipline, epidemiology is instilled with the spirit that epidemiologic information should be used to promote and protect the public’s health. We will write a custom essay sample on Introduction to Epidemiology or any similar topic only for you Order Now Hence, epidemiology involves both science and public health practice. The term applied epidemiology is sometimes used to describe the application or practice of epidemiology to address public health issues. Examples of applied epidemiology include the following: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ the monitoring of reports of communicable diseases in the community the study of whether a particular dietary component influences your risk of developing cancer evaluation of the effectiveness and impact of a cholesterol awareness program analysis of historical trends and current data to project future public health resource needs Objectives After studying this document and answering the questions in the exercises, you should be able to do the following: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Define epidemiology Summarize the historical evolution of epidemiology Describe the elements of a case definition and state the effect of changing the value of any of the elements List the key features and uses of descriptive epidemiology List the key features and uses of analytic epidemiology List the three components of the epidemiologic triad List and describe Hill’s criteria of causation Understand the natural history of disease and the three types of prevention Understand infectivity, pathogenicity, and virulence List and describe primary applications of epidemiology in public health practice List and describe the different modes of transmission of communicable disease in a population 1 Page 2 Applied Epidemiology I A number of exercises are provided. It is suggested you a ttempt to answer these questions and then compare your answers with those at the end of this document. Introduction The word epidemiology comes from the Greek words epi, meaning â€Å"on or upon,† demos, meaning â€Å"people,† and logos, meaning â€Å"the study of. Many definitions have been proposed, but the following definition captures the underlying principles and the public health spirit of epidemiology: â€Å"Epidemiology is the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in specified populations, and the application of this study to the control of health problems. † (17) Key terms in this definition reflect some of the important principles of epidemiology. Study Epidemiology is a scientific discipline with sound methods of scientific inquiry at its foundation. Epidemiology is data-driven and relies on a systematic and unbiased approach to the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data. Basic epidemiologic methods tend to rely on careful observation and use of valid comparison groups to assess whether what was observed, such as the number of cases of disease in a particular area during a particular time period or the frequency of an exposure among persons with disease, differs from what might be expected. However, epidemiology also draws on methods from other scientific fields, including biostatistics and informatics, with biologic, economic, social, and behavioral sciences. In fact, epidemiology is often described as the basic science of public health, and for good reason. First, epidemiology is a quantitative discipline that relies on a working knowledge of probability, statistics, and sound research methods. Second, epidemiology is a method of causal reasoning based on developing and testing hypotheses grounded in such scientific fields as biology, behavioral sciences, physics, and ergonomics to explain health-related behaviors, states, and events. However, epidemiology is not just a research activity but an integral component of public health, providing the foundation for directing practical and appropriate public health action based on this science and causal reasoning. Determinants Epidemiology is also used to search for determinants, which are the causes and other factors that influence the occurrence of disease and other health-related events. Epidemiologists assume that illness does not occur randomly in a population, but happens only when the right accumulation of risk factors or determinants exists in an individual. To search for these determinants, epidemiologists use analytic epidemiology or epidemiologic studies to provide the â€Å"Why† and â€Å"How† of such events. They assess whether groups with different rates of disease differ in their demographic characteristics, genetic or immunologic make-up, behaviors, environmental exposures, or other so-called potential risk factors. Ideally, the findings provide sufficient evidence to direct prompt and effective public health control and prevention measures. Health-related states or events Epidemiology was originally focused exclusively on epidemics of communicable diseases3 but was subsequently expanded to address endemic communicable diseases and non-communicable infectious diseases. By the middle of the 20th Century, additional epidemiologic methods had been developed and applied to chronic diseases, injuries, birth defects, maternal-child health, occupational health, and environmental health. Then epidemiologists began to look at behaviors related to health and well-being, such as amount of exercise and seat belt use. Now, with the recent explosion in molecular methods, Introduction to Epidemiology – Epi 592J Page 3 epidemiologists can make important strides in examining genetic markers of disease risk. Indeed, the term health related states or events may be seen as anything that affects the well-being of a population. Nonetheless, many epidemiologists still use the term â€Å"disease† as shorthand for the wide range of healthrelated states and events that are studied. Specified populations Although epidemiologists and direct health-care providers (clinicians) are both concerned with occurrence and control of disease, they differ greatly in how they view â€Å"the patient. † The clinician is concerned about the health of an individual; the epidemiologist is concerned about the collective health of the people in a community or population. In other words, the clinician’s â€Å"patient† is the individual; the epidemiologist’s â€Å"patient† is the community. Therefore, the clinician and the epidemiologist have different responsibilities when faced with a person with illness. For example, when a patient with diarrheal disease presents, both are interested in establishing the correct diagnosis. However, while the clinician usually focuses on treating and caring for the individual, the epidemiologist focuses on identifying the exposure or source that caused the illness; the number of other persons who may have been similarly exposed; the potential for further spread in the community; and interventions to prevent additional cases or recurrences. Application Epidemiology is not just â€Å"the study of† health in a population; it also involves applying the knowledge gained by the studies to community-based practice. Like the practice of medicine, the practice of epidemiology is both a science and an art. To make the proper diagnosis and prescribe appropriate treatment for a patient, the clinician combines medical (scientific) knowledge with experience, clinical judgment, and understanding of the patient. Similarly, the epidemiologist uses the scientific methods of descriptive and analytic epidemiology as well as experience, epidemiologic judgment, and understanding of local conditions in â€Å"diagnosing† the health of a community and proposing appropriate, practical, and acceptable public health interventions to control and prevent disease in the community. Summary Epidemiology is the study (scientific, systematic, data-driven) of the distribution (frequency, pattern) and determinants (causes, risk factors) of health-related states and events (not just diseases) in specified populations (patient is community, individuals viewed collectively), and the application of (since epidemiology is a discipline within public health) this study to the control of health problems. Evolution Although epidemiologic thinking has been traced from Hippocrates (circa 400 B. C. ) through Graunt (1662), Farr, Snow (both mid-1800’s), and others, the discipline did not blossom until the end of the Second World War. The contributions of some of these early and more recent thinkers are described next. Hippocrates (circa 400 B. C. ) attempted to explain disease occurrence from a rational instead of a supernatural viewpoint. In his essay entitled â€Å"On Airs, Waters, and Places,† Hippocrates suggested that environmental and host factors such as behaviors m ight influence the development of disease. Another early contributor to epidemiology was John Graunt, a London haberdasher who published his landmark analysis of mortality data in 1662. He was the first to quantify patterns of birth, death, and disease occurrence, noting male-female disparities, high infant mortality, urban-rural differences, and seasonal variations. No one built upon Graunt’s work until the mid-1800, when William Farr began to systematically collect and analyze Britain’s mortality statistics. Farr, considered the father of modern vital statistics and disease surveillance, developed many of the basic practices used today in vital statistics and disease classification. He extended the epidemiologic analysis of morbidity and mortality data, looking at Page 4 Applied Epidemiology I he effects of marital status, occupation, and altitude. He also developed many epidemiologic concepts and techniques still in use today. Meanwhile, an anesthesiologist named John Snow was conducting a series of investiga tions in London that later earned him the title â€Å"the father of epidemiology. † Twenty years before the development of the microscope, Snow conducted studies of cholera outbreaks both to discover the cause of the disease and to prevent its recurrence. Because his work classically illustrates the sequence from descriptive epidemiology to hypothesis generation to hypothesis testing (analytic epidemiology) to application, we will consider two of his efforts. It is important to mention that at the time of John Snow’s investigations the most widely accepted cause of diseases, including cholera, was due to miasma, or foul air. Therefore most believed that cholera was transmitted by air, especially foul-smelling air near water. The germ theory, that disease was transmitted by microbes, did not gain acceptance until later in the 1800s. Snow conducted his classic study in 1854 when an epidemic of cholera developed in the Golden Square of London. He began his investigation by determining where in this area persons with cholera lived and worked. He then used this information to map the distribution of cases on what epidemiologists call a spot map. His map is shown in Figure 1. 1. Because Snow believed that water was a source of infection for cholera, he marked the location of water pumps on his spot map, and then looked for a relationship between the distribution of cholera case households and the location of pumps. He noticed that more case households clustered around certain pumps, especially the Broad Street pump, and he concluded that the Broad Street pump was the most likely source of infection. Questioning residents who lived near the other pumps, he found that they avoided certain pumps because the water they provided was grossly contaminated, and that other pumps were located too inconveniently for most residents of the Golden Square area. From this information, it appeared to Snow that the Broad Street pump was probably the primary source of water for most persons with cholera in the Golden Square area. He realized, however, that it was too soon to draw that conclusion because the map showed no cholera cases in a two-block area to the east of the Broad Street pump. Perhaps no one lived in that area, or perhaps the residents were somehow protected. Upon investigating, Snow found that a brewery was located there and that it had a deep well on the premises where brewery workers, who also lived in the area, got their water. In addition, the brewery allotted workers a daily quota of malt liquor. Access to these uncontaminated rations could explain why none of the brewery’s employees contracted cholera. To provide further evidence that the Broad Street pump was the source of the epidemic, Snow gathered information on where persons with cholera had obtained their water. Consumption of water from the Broad Street pump was the one common factor among the cholera patients. According to legend, Snow removed the handle of the Broad Street pump and aborted the outbreak. Snow’s second major contribution involved another investigation of the same outbreak of cholera that occurred in London in 1854. In a London epidemic in 1849, Snow had noted that districts with the highest mortalities had water supplied by two companies: the Lambeth Company and the Southwark and Vauxhall Company. At that time, both companies obtained water from the Thames River, at intake points downstream of London. In 1852, the Lambeth Company moved their water works upstream from London, thus obtaining water free of London sewage. When cholera returned to London in 1853, Snow realized the Lambeth Company’s relocation of its intake point would allow him to compare districts that were supplied with water upstream from London with districts that received water downstream from London. Table 1. 1 shows what Snow found when he made that comparison for cholera mortality over a 7-week period during the summer of 1854. Introduction to Epidemiology – Epi 592J Page 5 Figure 1. 1 Distribution of cholera cases in the Golden Square area of London, August-September 1854 Table 1. Mortality from cholera in the districts of London supplied by the Southwark and Vauxhall and the Lambeth Companies, July 9-August 26, 1854 Districts with Water Supplied by Population Deaths from Mortality Risk per (1851 Census) Cholera 1,000 Population 167,654 844 5. 0 Southwark and Vauxhall Co. only Lambeth Co. only Bo th companies Source: 27 19,133 300,149 18 652 0. 9 2. 2 Page 6 Applied Epidemiology I The data in Table 1. 1 show that the risk of death from cholera was more than 5 times higher in districts served only by the Southwark and Vauxhall Company than in those served only by the Lambeth Company. Interestingly, the mortality risks in districts supplied by both companies fell between the risks for districts served exclusively by either company. These data were consistent with the hypothesis that water obtained from the Thames below London was a source of cholera. Alternatively, the populations supplied by the two companies may have differed on a number of other factors which affected their risk of cholera. To test his water supply hypothesis, Snow focused on the districts served by both companies, because the households within a district were generally comparable except for which company supplied water. In these districts, Snow identified the water supply company for every house in which a death from cholera had occurred during the 7-week period. Table 1. 2 shows his findings. Table 1. Mortality from cholera in London related to the water supply of individual houses in districts served by both the Southwark and Vauxhall Company and the Lambeth Company, July 9August 26, 1854 Water Supply of Individual House Population Deaths from Mortality risk per (1851 Census) Cholera 1,000 Population Southwark and Vauxhall Co. 98,862 419 4. 2 Lambeth Co. Source: 27 154,615 80 0. 5 This further study added support to Snow’s hypothesis, and demonstrates the sequence of steps used today to investigate outbreaks of disease. Based on a characterization of the cases and population at risk by time, place, and person, Snow developed a testable hypothesis. He then tested this hypothesis with a more rigorously designed study, ensuring that the groups to be compared were comparable. After this study, efforts to control the epidemic were directed at changing the location of the water intake of the Southwark and Vauxhall Company to reduce sources of contamination. Thus, with no knowledge of the existence of microorganisms, Snow demonstrated through epidemiologic studies that water could serve as a vehicle for transmitting cholera and that epidemiologic information could be used to direct prompt and appropriate public health action. More information on John Snow can be found at: www. ph. ucla. edu/epi/snow. html In the mid- and late-1800’s, many others in Europe and the United States began to apply epidemiologic methods to investigate disease occurrence. At that time, most investigators focused on acute infectious diseases. In the 1900’s, epidemiologists extended their methods to noninfectious diseases. The period since the Second World War has seen an explosion in the development of research methods and the theoretical underpinnings of epidemiology, and in the application of epidemiology to the entire range of health-related outcomes, behaviors, and even knowledge and attitudes. The studies by Doll and Hill (13) linking smoking to lung cancer and the study of cardiovascular disease among residents of Framingham, Massachusetts (12), are two examples of how pioneering researchers have applied epidemiologic methods to chronic disease since World War II. Finally, during the 1960’s and early 1970’s health workers applied epidemiologic methods to eradicate smallpox worldwide. This was an achievement in applied epidemiology of unprecedented proportions. Today, public health workers throughout the world accept and use epidemiology routinely. Epidemiology is often practiced or used by non-epidemiologists to characterize the health of their communities and to solve day-to-day problems. This landmark in the evolution of the discipline is less dramatic than the eradication of smallpox, but it is no less important in improving the health of people everywhere. Introduction to Epidemiology – Epi 592J Page 7 Uses Epidemiology and the information generated by epidemiologic methods have many uses. These uses are categorized and described below. Population or community health assessment. To set policy and plan programs, public health officials must assess the health of the population or community they serve and determine whether health services are available, accessible, effective, and efficient. To do this, they must find answers to many questions: What are the actual and potential health problems in the community? Where are they? Who is at risk? Which problems are declining over time? Which ones are increasing or have the potential to increase? How do these patterns relate to the level and distribution of services available? The methods of descriptive and analytic epidemiology provide ways to answer these and other questions. With answers provided through the application of epidemiology, the officials can make informed decisions that will lead to improved health for the population they serve. Individual decisions. People may not realize that they use epidemiologic information in their daily decisions. When they decide to stop smoking, take the stairs instead of the elevator, order a salad instead of a cheeseburger with French fries, or choose one method of contraception instead of another, they may be influenced, consciously or unconsciously, by epidemiologists’ assessment of risk. Since World War II, epidemiologists have provided information related to all those decisions. In the 1950’s, epidemiologists documented the increased risk of lung cancer among smokers; in the 1960’s and 1970’s, epidemiologists noted a variety of benefits and risks associated with different methods of birth control; in the mid-1980’s, epidemiologists identified the increased risk of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection associated with certain sexual and drug-related behaviors; and, more positively, epidemiologists continue to document the role of exercise and proper diet in reducing the risk of heart disease. These and hundreds of other epidemiologic findings are directly relevant to the choices that people make every day, choices that affect their health over a lifetime. Completing the clinical picture. When studying a disease outbreak, epidemiologists depend on clinical physicians and laboratory scientists for the proper diagnosis of individual patients. But epidemiologists also contribute to physicians’ understanding of the clinical picture and natural history of disease. For example, in late 1989 three patients in New Mexico were diagnosed as having myalgias (severe muscle pains in chest or abdomen) and unexplained eosinophilia (an increase in the number of one type of white blood cell). Their physicians could not identify the cause of their symptoms, or put a name to the disorder. Epidemiologists began looking for other cases with similar symptoms, and within weeks had found enough additional cases of eosinophilia-myalgia syndrome (EMS) to describe the illness, its complications, and its risk of mortality. Similarly, epidemiologists have documented the course of HIV infection, from the initial exposure to the development of a wide variety of clinical syndromes that include acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). They have also documented the numerous conditions associated with cigarette smoking—from pulmonary and heart disease to lung and cervical cancer. Search for causes. Much of epidemiologic research is devoted to a search for causes, factors which influence one’s risk of disease. Sometimes this is an academic pursuit, but more often the goal is to identify a cause so that appropriate public health action might be taken. It has been said that epidemiology can never prove a causal relationship between an exposure and a disease. Nevertheless, epidemiology often provides enough information to support effective action. Examples include John Snow’s removal of the pump handle and the withdrawal of a specific brand of tampon that was linked by epidemiologists to toxic shock syndrome. Another example is the recommendation that children not be given aspirin due to its association with Reye syndrome. Just as often, epidemiology and laboratory science converge to provide the evidence needed to establish causation. For example, a team of epidemiologists were able to identify a variety of risk factors during an outbreak of pneumonia among persons attending the American Page 8 Applied Epidemiology I Legion Convention in Philadelphia in 1976, called â€Å"Legionnaire’s disease. However, the outbreak was not â€Å"solved† until the Legionnaires’ bacillus was identified in the laboratory almost 6 months later. Disease control, elimination, and eradication. The ultimate goal of epidemiology is to improve the health of populations and through the reduction in disease. The definitions of disease control, elimination, and eradication as applied to infectious diseases are given below. (Dowdle WR. The principles of disease elimination and eradication. MMWR 48(SU01);23-7, 1999. ): Control: The reduction of disease incidence, prevalence, morbidity or mortality to a locally acceptable level as a result of deliberate efforts; continued intervention measures are required to maintain the reduction. Example: diarrheal diseases. Elimination of disease: Reduction to zero of the incidence of a specified disease in a defined geographical area as a result of deliberate efforts; continued intervention measures are required. Examples: neonatal tetanus. Elimination of infections: Reduction to zero of the incidence of infection caused by a specific agent in a defined geographical area as a result of deliberate efforts; continued measures to prevent reestablishment of transmission are required. Example: measles, poliomyelitis. Eradication: Permanent reduction to zero of the worldwide incidence of infection caused by a specific agent as a result of deliberate efforts; intervention measures are no longer needed. Example: smallpox. Extinction: The specific infectious agent no longer exists in nature or in the laboratory. Example: none. The above definitions are specific to infectious disease, but some of the concepts can carry over to other conditions, such as nutritional disorders, inborn errors of metabolism, and chronic diseases. Introduction to Epidemiology – Epi 592J Page 9 Exercise 1. 1 In the early 1980’s, epidemiologists recognized that AIDS occurred most frequently in men who had sex with men and in intravenous drug users. Describe how this information might be used for each of the following: a. Population or community health assessment b. Individual decisions c. Search for causes Page 10 Applied Epidemiology I The Epidemiologic Approach Like a newspaper reporter, an epidemiologist determines What, When, Where, Who, and Why. However, the epidemiologist is more likely to describe these concepts in slightly different terms: case definition, time, place, person, and causes. Case Definition (â€Å"What? †) The identification of disease can be based on symptoms, signs, and diagnostic tests. A symptom is a sensation or change in health experienced by an individual. Examples of symptoms reported by an individual are a cough, fatigue, anxiety, and back pain. Signs, or signs of disease, are an objective evidence of disease observed by someone other than the affected individual, such as a physician or nurse. A case definition is a set of standard criteria for deciding whether a person has a particular disease or other health-related condition. By using a standard case definition we attempt to ensure that every case is diagnosed in the same way, regardless of when or where it occurred, or who identified it. We can then compare the number of cases of the disease that occurred in one time or place with the number that occurred at another time or another place. For example, with a standard case definition, we can compare the number of cases of hepatitis A that occurred in New York City in 1991 with the number that occurred there in 1990. Or we can compare the number of cases that occurred in New York in 1991 with the number that occurred in San Francisco in 1991. With a standard ase definition, when we find a difference in disease occurrence, we know it is likely to be due to a real difference or due to the quality of the disease reporting system rather than the result of differences in how cases were diagnosed. A case definition consists of clinical criteria and, sometimes, limitations on time, place, and person. The clinical criteria usually include confirmatory laboratory tests, if available, or combinations of symptoms (subjective complaints), signs (objective physical findings), and other findings. For example, see the case definition for rabies below; notice that it requires laboratory confirmation. Rabies, Human Clinical description Rabies is an acute encephalomyelitis that almost always progresses to coma or death within 10 days of the first symptom. Laboratory criteria for diagnosis †¢ Detection by direct fluorescent antibody of viral antigens in a clinical specimen (preferably the brain or the nerves surrounding hair follicles in the nape of the neck), or †¢ Isolation (in cell culture or in a laboratory animal) of rabies virus from saliva, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), or central nervous system tissue, or †¢ Identification of a rabies-neutralizing antibody titer greater than or equal to 5 (complete neutralization) in the serum or CSF of an unvaccinated person Case classification Confirmed: a clinically compatible illness that is laboratory confirmed Comment Laboratory confirmation by all of the above methods is strongly recommended. Source: 3 Compare this with the case definition for Kawasaki syndrome provided in Exercise 1. 3 on page 12. Kawasaki syndrome is a childhood illness with fever and rash that has no known cause and no specifically distinctive laboratory findings. Notice that its case definition is based on the presence of fever, at least four of five specified clinical findings, and the lack of a more reasonable explanation. A case definition may have several sets of criteria, depending on the certainty of the diagnosis. For example, during an outbreak of measles, we might classify a person with a fever and rash as having a Introduction to Epidemiology – Epi 592J Page 11 suspect, probable, or confirmed case of measles, depending on what additional evidence of measles was present. In other situations, we may temporarily classify a case as suspect or probable until laboratory results are available. When we receive the laboratory report, we then reclassify the case as either confirmed or â€Å"not a case,† depending on the lab results. In the midst of a large outbreak of a disease caused by a known agent, we may permanently classify some cases as suspect or probable, because it is unnecessary and wasteful to run laboratory tests on every individual with a consistent clinical picture and a history of exposure (e. g. , chickenpox). Case definitions may also vary according to the purpose for classifying the occurrences of a disease. For example, health officials need to know as soon as possible if anyone has symptoms of plague or foodborne botulism so that they can begin planning what actions to take. For such rare but potentially severe diseases, where it is important to identify every possible case, health officials use a sensitive, or â€Å"loose† case definition. On the other hand, investigators of the causes of a disease outbreak want to be certain that any person included in the investigation really had the disease. The investigator will prefer a specific or â€Å"strict† case definition. For instance, in an outbreak of Salmonella agona, the investigators would be more likely to identify the source of the infection if they included only persons who were confirmed to have been infected with that organism, rather than including anyone with acute diarrhea, because some persons may have had diarrhea from a different cause. In this setting, a disadvantage of a strict case definition is an underestimate of the total number of cases. Exercise 1. 2 In the case definition for an apparent outbreak of trichinosis, investigators used the following classifications: Clinical criteria Confirmed case: signs and symptoms plus laboratory confirmation Probable case: acute onset of at least three of the following four features: myalgia, fever, facial edema, or eosinophil count greater than 500/mm3 Possible case: acute onset of two of the above four features plus a physician diagnosis of trichinosis Suspect case: unexplained eosinophilia Not a case: failure to fulfill the criteria for a confirmed, probable, possible, or suspect case Time Onset after October 26, 1991 Place Metropolitan Atlanta Person Any Assign the appropriate classification to each of the persons included in the line listing below. (All were residents of Atlanta with acute onset of symptoms in November. ) Page 12 Applied Epidemiology I ID # 1 2 3 4 5 Last name Abels Baker Corey Dale Ring myalgia yes yes yes yes yes fever yes yes yes no no facial edema no yes no no no eosino phil count 495 pending 1,100 2,050 600 Physician diagnosis trichinosis trichinosis ? trichinosis EMS ? trichinosis Lab confirm yes pending pending pending not done Classification __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ Exercise 1. 3 The following is the official case definition for Kawasaki syndrome that is recommended by CDC: Kawasaki Syndrome Clinical case definition A febrile illness of greater than or equal to 5 days’ duration, with at least four of the five following physical findings and no other more reasonable explanation for the observed clinical findings: †¢ Bilateral conjunctival injection †¢ Oral changes (erythema of lips or oropharynx, strawberry tongue, or fissuring of the lips) †¢ Peripheral extremity changes (edema, erythema, or generalized or periungual desquamation) †¢ Rash †¢ Cervical lymphadenopathy (at least one lymph node greater than or equal to 1. cm in diameter) Laboratory criteria for diagnosis None Case classification Confirmed: a case that meets the clinical case definition Comment If fever disappears after intravenous gamma globulin therapy is started, fever may be of less than 5 days’ duration, and the clinical case definition may still be met. Source: 3 Discuss the pros and cons of this case definition for the purposes listed below. (For a brief description of Kawasaki syndrome, see Benenson’s Control of Communicable Diseases in Man). a. Diagnosing and treating individual patients b. Tracking the occurrence of the disease for public health records c. Doing research to identify the cause of the disease Introduction to Epidemiology – Epi 592J Page 13 Numbers and Risks A basic task of a health department is counting cases in order to measure and describe morbidity. When physicians diagnose a case of a reportable disease they are suppose to report the case to their local health department. For most reportable conditions, these reports are legally required to contain information on time (when the case occurred), place (where the patient lived), and person (the age, race, and sex of the patient). The health department combines all reports and summarizes the information by time, place, and person. From these summaries, the health department determines the extent and patterns of disease occurrence in the area, and attempts to identify clusters or outbreaks of disease. A simple count of cases, however, does not provide all the information a health department needs. To compare the occurrence of a disease at different locations, during different times, or in different subgroups, a health department converts the case counts into risks, which relates the number of cases to the size of the population. Risks are useful in many ways. With risks, the health department can identify groups in the community with an elevated risk of disease. These so-called high-risk groups can be further assessed and targeted for special intervention; the groups can be studied to identify risk factors that are related to the occurrence of disease. Individuals can use knowledge of these risk factors to guide their decisions about behaviors that influence health. Descriptive Epidemiology In descriptive epidemiology, we organize and summarize data according to time, place, and person. These three characteristics are sometimes called the epidemiologic variables. Compiling and analyzing data by time, place, and person is desirable for several reasons. First, the investigator becomes intimately familiar with the data and with the extent of the public health problem being investigated. Second, this provides a detailed description of the health of a population that is easily communicated. Third, such analysis identifies the populations at greatest risk of acquiring a particular disease. This information provides important clues to the causes of the disease, and these clues can be turned into testable hypotheses. Time (â€Å"When? †) Disease risks usually change over time. Some of these changes occur regularly and can be predicted. For example, the seasonal increase of influenza cases with the onset of cold weather is a pattern that is familiar to everyone. By knowing when flu outbreaks will occur, health departments can time their influenza vaccination campaigns effectively. Other diseases may make unpredictable changes in occurrence. By examining events that precede a disease increase or decrease, we may identify causes and appropriate actions to control or prevent further occurrence of the disease. We usually show time data as a graph (Figure 1. 3). We put the number or risk of cases or deaths on the vertical, y-axis; we put the time periods along the horizontal, x-axis. We often indicate on a graph when events occurred that we believe are related to the particular health problem described in the graph. For example, we may indicate the period of exposure or the date control measures were implemented. Such a graph provides a simple visual depiction of the relative size of a problem, its past trend and potential future course, as well as how other events may have affected the problem. Studying such a graph often gives us insights into what may have caused the problem. Depending on what event we are describing, we may be interested in a period of years or decades, or we may limit the period to hours, days, weeks, or months when the number of cases reported is greater than normal (an epidemic period). For some conditions—for many chronic diseases, for example—we are interested in long-term changes in the number of cases or risk of the condition. For other conditions, we may find it more revealing to look at the occurrence of the condition by season, month, day of the Page 14 Applied Epidemiology I week, or even time of day. For a newly recognized problem, we need to assess the occurrence of the problem over time in a variety of ways until we discover the most appropriate and revealing time period to use. Some of the common types of time-related graphs are further described below. Secular (long-term) trends. Graphing the annual cases or risk of a disease over a period of years shows long-term or secular trends in the occurrence of the disease. We commonly use these trends to suggest or predict the future incidence of a disease. We also use them in some instances to evaluate programs or policy decisions, or to suggest what caused an increase or decrease in the occurrence of a disease, particularly if the graph indicates when related events took place, as depicted in Figure 1. 3 (note the scale of the y-axis). Figure 1. 3 Malaria by year, United States, 1930-1990 Works Progress Administration Malaria Control Drainage Program Relapses from Overseas Cases 1000 Reported Cases per 100,000 Population 100 Relapses from Korean Veterans Returning Vietnam Veterans 10 Foreign Immigration 1 0. 1 0. 01 1930 1935 1940 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 Source: 9 Year Seasonality. By graphing the occurrence of a disease by week or month over the course of a year or more we can show its seasonal pattern, if any. Some diseases are known to have characteristic seasonal distributions; for example, as mentioned earlier, the number of reported cases of influenza typically increases in winter. Seasonal patterns may suggest hypotheses about how the infection is transmitted, which behavioral factors increase risk, and other possible contributors to the disease or condition. The seasonal pattern of an unknown disease is shown in Figure 1. 4. What factors might contribute to its seasonal pattern? From only the single year’s data in Figure 1. 4, it is difficult to conclude whether the peak in June represents a characteristic seasonal pattern that would be repeated yearly, or whether it is simply an epidemic that occurred in the spring and summer of that particular year. You would need more than one year’s data before you could conclude that the pattern shown there represents the seasonal variation in this disease. Introduction to Epidemiology – Epi 592J Page 15 Figure 1. 4 Cases of an unknown disease by month of onset 450 400 350 300 Cases 50 200 150 100 50 0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Source: 14 Month of Onset Day of week and time of day. Displaying data by days of the week or time of day may also be informative. Analysis at these shorter time periods is especially important for conditions that are potentially rel ated to occupational or environmental exposures, which may occur at regularly scheduled intervals. In Figure 1. 5, farm tractor fatalities are displayed by days of the week. Does this analysis at shorter time periods suggest any hypothesis? In Figure 1. 5 the number of farm tractor fatalities on Sundays is about half the number on the other days. We can only speculate why this is. One reasonable hypothesis is that farmers spend fewer hours on their tractors on Sundays than on the other days. Figure 1. 5 Fatalities associated with farm tractor injuries by day of death, Georgia, 1971-1981 Source: 15 Page 16 Applied Epidemiology I Examine the pattern of fatalities associated with farm tractor injuries by hour in Figure 1. 6. How might you explain the morning peak at 11:00 AM, the dip at noon, and the afternoon peak at 4:00 PM? Figure 1. 6 Fatalities associated with farm tractor injuries by time of day, Georgia, 1971-1981 Source: 15 Epidemic period. To show the time course of a disease outbreak or epidemic, we use a graph called an epidemic curve. As with the other graphs you have seen in this section, we place the number of cases on the vertical axis and time on the horizontal axis. For time, we use either the time of onset of symptoms or the date of diagnosis. For very acute diseases with short incubation periods (i. e. , time period between exposure and onset of symptoms is short), we may show time as the hour of onset. For diseases with longer incubation periods, we might show time in 1-day, 2-day, 3-day, 1-week, or other appropriate intervals. Figure 1. 7 shows an epidemic curve that uses a 3-day interval for a foodborne disease outbreak. Notice how the cases are stacked in adjoining columns. By convention, we use this format, called a histogram, for epidemic curves. The shape and other features of an epidemic curve can suggest hypotheses about the time and source of exposure, the mode of transmission, and the causative agent. Figure 1. 7 Date of onset of illness in patients with culture-confirmed Yersinia enterocolitica infections, Atlanta, November 1, 1988-January 10, 1989 8 7 6 Thanksgiving Christmas New Year’s Cases 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 1 4 7 10 November December January Source: 18 Date of Onset Introduction to Epidemiology – Epi 592J Page 17 Place (â€Å"Where? †) We describe a health event by place to gain insight into the geographical extent of the problem. For place, we may use place of residence, birthplace, employment, school district, hospital unit, etc. , epending on which may be related to the occurrence of the health event. Similarly, we may use large or small geographic units: country, state, county, census tract, street address, map coordinates, or some other geogra phical designation. Sometimes, we may find it useful to analyze data according to place categories such as urban or rural, domestic or foreign, and institutional or noninstitutional. Not all analyses by place will be equally informative. For example, examine the data shown in Table 1. 3. Where were the malaria cases diagnosed? What â€Å"place† does the table break the data down by? Would it have been more or less useful to analyze the data according to the â€Å"state of residence† of the cases? We believe that it provides more useful information to show the data in Table 1. 3 by where the infection was acquired than it would have to show where the case-patients lived. By analyzing the malaria cases by place of acquisition, we can see where most of the malaria cases acquired their disease. Table 1. 3 Malaria cases by distribution of Plasmodium species and area of acquisition, United States, 1989 Species Area of Acquisition Vivax Falciparum Other Total Africa 52 382 64 498 Asia 207 44 29 280 Central America Caribbean 107 14 9 130 North America 131 3 13 147 (United States) (5) (0) (0) (5) South America 10 1 2 13 Oceania 19 2 5 26 Unknown 6 2 0 8 Total 532 448 122 1,102 Source: 6 By analyzing data by place, we can also get an idea of where the agent that causes a disease normally lives and multiplies, what may carry or transmit it, and how it spreads. When we find that the occurrence of a disease is associated with a place, we can infer that factors that increase the risk of the disease are present either in the persons living there (host factors) or in the environment, or both. For example, diseases that are passed from one person to another tend to spread more rapidly in urban areas than in rural ones, mainly because the greater crowding in urban areas provides more opportunities for susceptible people to come into contact with someone who is infected. On the other hand, diseases that are passed from animals to humans often occur in greater numbers in rural and suburban areas because people in those areas are more likely to come into contact with disease-carrying animals, ticks, and the like. For example, perhaps Lyme disease has become more common because people have moved to wooded areas where they come into contact with infected deer ticks. Although we can show data by place in a table—as Table 1. 3 does—it is often better to show it pictorially in a map. On a map, we can use different shadings, color, or line patterns to indicate how a disease or health event has different numbers or risks of occurrence in different areas, as in Figure 1. 8. Page 18 Applied Epidemiology I Figure 1. 8 AIDS cases per 100,000 population, United States, July 1991-June 1992 Source: 4 For a rare disease or outbreak, we often find it useful to prepare a spot map, like Snow’s map of the Golden Square of London (Figure 1. 1), in which we mark with a dot or an X the relation of each case to a place that is potentially relevant to the health event being investigated—such as where each case lived or worked. We may also label other sites on a spot map, such as where we believe cases may have been exposed, to show the orientation of cases within the area mapped. Figure 1. 9 is a spot map for an outbreak of mumps that occurred among employees of the Chicago futures exchanges. Study the location of each case in relation to other cases and to the trading pits. The four numbered areas delineated with heavy lines are the trading pits. Does the location of cases on the spot map lead you to any hypothesis about the source of infection? Figure 1. 9 Mumps cases in trading pits of exchange A, Chicago, Illinois, August 18-December 25, 1987 #1 #3 #2 #4 Key: Pit areas are numbered and delineated by heavy lines. Individual trading pits within pit areas are outlined by light lines. Affected person (N= 43) Desk areas Source: CDC, unpublished data, 1988 Introduction to Epidemiology – Epi 592J Page 19 You probably observed that the cases occurred primarily among those working in trading pits #3 and #4. This clustering of illness within trading pits provides indirect evidence that the mumps was transmitted person-to person. Person (â€Å"Who? ) In descriptive epidemiology, when we organize or analyze data by â€Å"person† there are several person categories available to us. We may use inherent characteristics of people (for example, age, race, sex), their acquired characteristics (immune or marital status), their activities (occupation, leisure activities, use of medications/tobacco/drugs), or the conditions under which they live (socioeconomic status, access to medical care). These categories usually determine, to a large degree, who is at greatest risk of experiencing certain undesirable health conditions, such as becoming infected with a particular disease organism. We may show person-related characteristics in either tables or graphs. In analyzing data by person, we often must try a number of different categories before we find which are the most useful and enlightening. Age and sex are most critical; we almost always analyze data according to these. Depending on the health event we are studying, we may or may not break the data down by other attributes. Often we analyze data by more than one characteristic simultaneously; for example, we may look at age and sex simultaneously to see if the sexes differ in how they develop a condition that increases with age—such as with heart disease. Age. Age is probably the single most important â€Å"person† attribute, because almost every health-related event or state varies with age. A number of factors that also vary with age are behind this association: susceptibility, opportunity for exposure, latency or incubation period of the disease, and physiologic response (which affects, among other things, disease development). When we analyze data by age, we try to use age groups that are narrow enough to detect any agerelated patterns that may be present in the data. In an initial breakdown by age, we commonly use 5-year age intervals: 0 to 4 years, 5 to 9, 10 to 14, and so on. Larger intervals, such as 0 to 19 years, 20 to 39, etc. , may conceal variations related to age which we need to know to identify the true ages at greatest risk. Sometimes, even 5-year age groups can hide important differences, especially in children less than five years of age. Take time to examine Figure 1. 10, for example, before you read ahead. What does the information in this figure suggest health authorities should do to reduce the number of cases of whooping cough? Where should health authorities focus their efforts? You probably said that health authorities should focus on immunizing infants against whooping cough during the first year of life. Now, examine Figure 1. 11. This figure shows the same data but they are presented in the usual 5-year intervals. Based on Figure 1. 11 where would you have suggested that health authorities focus their efforts? Would this recommendation have been as effective and efficient in reducing cases of whooping cough? You probably said that health authorities should immunize infants and children before the age of 5. That recommendation would be effective, but it would not be efficient. You would be immunizing more children than actually necessary and wasting resources. Sex. In general, males have higher risks of illness and death than females do for a wide range of diseases. For some diseases, this sex-related difference is because of genetic, hormonal, anatomic, or other inherent differences between the sexes. These inherent differences affect their susceptibility or physiologic responses. For example, premenopausal women have a lower risk of heart disease than men of the same age. This difference is attributed to higher estrogen levels in women. On the other hand, the sex-related differences in the occurrence of many diseases reflect differences in opportunity or levels of exposure. For example, Figure 1. 12 shows that hand/wrist disorders occur almost twice as often in females than in males. What are some sex-related differences that would cause a higher level of this disorder in females? Page 20 Applied Epidemiology I Figure 1. 10 Pertussis (whooping cough) incidence by age group, United States, 1989 Source: 9 Figure 1. 11 Pertussis (whooping cough) incidence by age group, United States, 1989 Source: 9 Figure 1. 2 Prevalence of hand/wrist cumulative trauma disorder by sex, Newspaper Company A, 1990 Source: NIOSH, unpublished data, 1991 Introduction to Epidemiology – Epi 592J Page 21 You may have attributed the higher level of disorders in females to their hig her level of exposure to occupational activities that require repetitive hand/wrist motion such as typing or keyboard entry. With occupationally-related illness, we usually find that sex differences reflect the number of workers in those occupations. You may also have attributed the higher level of disorders in females to anatomical differences; perhaps women’s wrists are more susceptible to hand/wrist disorders. Ethnic and racial groups. In examining epidemiologic data, we are interested in any group of people who have lived together long enough to acquire common characteristics, either biologically or socially. Several terms are commonly used to identify such groups: race, nationality, religion, or local reproductive or social groups, such as tribes and other geographically or socially isolated groups. Differences that we observe in racial, ethnic, or other groups may reflect differences in their susceptibility or in their exposure, or they may reflect differences in other factors that bear more directly on the risk of disease, such as socioeconomic status and access to health care. In Figure 1. 13, the risks of suicide for five groups of people are displayed. Figure 1. 3 Suicide death rates for persons 15 to 24 years of age according to race/ethnicity, United States, 1988 Source: 22 Clearly this graph displays a range of suicide death rates for the five groups of people. These data provide direction for prevention programs and for future studies to explain the differences. Socioeconomic status. Socioeconomic status is difficult to quantify. It is made up of many variables such as occupation, family income, educational achievement, living conditions, and social standing. The variables that are easiest to measure may not reflect the overall concept. Nevertheless, we commonly use occupation, family income, and educational achievement, while recognizing that these do not measure socioeconomic status precisely. The frequency of many adverse health conditions increases with decreasing socioeconomic status. For example, tuberculosis is more common among persons in lower socioeconomic strata. Infant mortality and time lost from work due to disability are both associated with lower income. These patterns may reflect more harmful exposures, lower resistance, and less access to health care. Or they may in part Page 22 Applied Epidemiology I reflect an interdependent relationship which is impossible to untangle—does low socioeconomic status contribute to disability or does disability contribute to lower socioeconomic status? Some adverse health conditions are more frequent among persons of higher socioeconomic status. These conditions include breast cancer, Kawasaki syndrome, and tennis elbow. Again, differences in exposure account for at least some of the differences in the frequency of these conditions. Exercise 1. 4 The following series of tables (Exercise 1. 4, Tables 1-4) show person information about cases of the unknown disease described in Figure 1. 4 on page 15. Look again at Figure 1. 4, study the information in the four exercise tables and then describe in words how the disease outbreak is distributed by time and person. Exercise 1. 4, Table 1 Incidence of the disease by age and sex in 24 villages surveyed for one year Males Females Age Group Population* # Cases Risk per Population* # Cases Risk per (years) 1,000 1,000 How to cite Introduction to Epidemiology, Papers